An  Ideal  Feeder's  Head. 

Hereford  steer,  Peerless  Wilton  39th's  Defender,  Grand  Champion  at 
the  International  Live  Stock  Show  in  1906.  Bred,  fed,  and  exhibited  by 
Mr.  F.  A.  Nave,  Attica,  Ind.  Sold  to  Iowa  State  College. 


Types  and  Market  Classes 
of    Jve  Stock 


By 

H.  W.  VAUGHAN,  M.  Sc.  in  Agr. 

Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry 
University  of  Minnesota 


FIFTH  EDITION 
Revised 


R.  G.  ADAMS  &  CO. 

COLUMBUS,  OHIO 
1919 


COPYRIGHT,  1919 

BY 
H.  W.  VAUGHAN 


DE-K*. 


THE    CHAMPLIN    PRESS 
COLUMBUS.    OHIO 


PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION. 

During  the  past  eight  years  there  has  been  added  to  the 
curriculum  in  most  of  our  agricultural  colleges  a  new  course 
dealing  with  the  types  of  farm  animals,  market  demands,  and 
market  classes  of  live  stock.  More  properly  speaking,  it  has 
been  inserted  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  work  in  animal  hus- 
bandry, forming,  as  it  logically  does,  the  foundation  course  in 
the  study  of  that  important  branch  of  agriculture.  This  is  a 
soundly  practical  study;  the  student  is  brought  to  a  much  clearer 
conception  of  values  and  a  much  better  appreciation  of  live 
stock  than  was  possible  under  the  former  system  of  teaching. 

Recognizing  the  need  of  a  text  on  this  subject  which  could 
be  placed  in  the  hands  of  students,  the  writer  prepared  and 
printed  a  loose-leaf  edition  which  has  been  used  at  Ohio  State 
University  during  the  past  three  years.  This  met  with  favor- 
able comment,  and  requests  have  been  made  that  the  material 
be  put  into  book  form.  After  careful  revision  and  the  addition 
of  a  number  of  illustrations,  this  is  now  attempted  in  the  hope 
that  students  and  teachers  and  the  general  reader  as  well  may 
find  such  a  book  useful. 

The  arrangement  of  the  subject-matter  corresponds  to 
the  order  usually  followed  in  teaching,  but  may  be  varied  as 
desired,  each  section  of  the  book — Cattle,  Sheep,  Hogs,  and 
Horses — being  complete  in  itself. 

The  writer  desires  to  express  his  indebtedness  to  numer- 
ous commission  men,  buyers  for  the  packing  houses,  and  others 
who  have  kindly  given  their  assistance  during  his  quests  for 
information,  and  to  numerous  experiment  station  publications, 
particularly  the  series  of  excellent  bulletins  issued  by  the  Illi- 
nois Station  setting  forth  the  results  of  their  studies  of  the 
Chicago  and  St.  Louis  markets.  Acknowledgment  of  valued 
assistance  is  due  my  present  co-workers,  and  also  Professors 
C.  S.  Plumb  and  F.  R.  Marshall  at  Ohio  State  University. 

Iowa  State  College,  H.  W.  VAUGHAN. 

July,  1915, 


PREFACE  TO  FIFTH  EDITION. 

At  most  agricultural  colleges,  the  study  of  beef  cattle  begins 
with  the  fat  steer  at  the  market,  both  on  foot  and  in  the  carcass, 
proceeds  from  that  to  a  study  of  cattle  in  the  feed-lot,  and  then 
considers  the  selection  and  operation  of  the  breeding  herd. 
Similar  procedures  are  followed  in  studying  other  kinds  of  live 
stock.  If  the  student  learns  his  first  lesson  at  the  market, 
he  comes  to  the  feed-lot  fortified  with  a  knowledge  of  what  the 
market  wants,  and  he  then  proceeds  to  a  study  of  the  breeding 
herd  knowing  what  both  the  market  and  the  feed-lot  demand 
from  the  breeder. 

This  is  the  most  practical  method  of  teaching  because  the 
market  should  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  breeder  and  feeder;  and 
it  is  best  from  a  pedagogical  standpoint  because  finished  animals 
for  the  market  are  easiest  to  judge,  are  judged  on  practical  points, 
the  student  begins  his  judging  with  the  more  elementary  and 
proceeds  to  the  more  complex  types,  and  as  he  progresses  to 
each  new  stage  he  brings  with  him  a  soundly  practical  viewpoint 
gained  from  his  previous  experience.  Finally,  in  his  study  of 
the  commercial  breeding  herd,  the  produce  of  which  goes  direct 
to  the  feed-lot  or  market,  he  learns  the  necessity  for  using  good 
purebred  sires,  and  this  leads  in  logical  order  to  the  study  of  the 
breeds  of  farm  animals.  He  takes  up  the  breed  studies  with  a 
clear  understanding  that  it  is  the  function  of  these  breeds  to 
supply  seed  to  improve  all  farm  and  range  live  stock,  he  has  a 
firm  belief  in  their  power  to  perform  this  function,  and  he  is 
led  to  compare  and  value  the  various  breeds  as  they  should  be 
compared  and  valued,  namely  on  their  ability  to  meet  practical 
requirements.  In  short,  the  modern  plan  of  study,  which 
proceeds  from  the  market  to  the  breeds,  rather  than  from  the 
breeds  to  the  market,  gives  the  student  the  right  philosophy 
of  the  live-stock  business,  particularly  the  purebred  live-stock 
business. 

In  the  first  edition  of  this  book,  published  in  1915,  the 
undersigned  endeavored  to  present  clearly  and  concisely  the 
things  a  beginner  in  the  field  of  Animal  Husbandry  should  know, 
leading  up  to,  but  not  including,  the  study  of  the  breeds.  The 

9 


110  PREFACE  TO  FIFTH  EDITION 

favor  with  which  the  book  was  received  far  surpassed  the  expec- 
tations of  those  responsible  for  its  appearance,  and  led  to  three 
reprintings  of  the  original  edition.  Thus  encouraged,  the  book 
has  been  rewritten  so  as  to  bring  it  up  to  date  and  give  it  greater 
clearness  and  accuracy,  yet  retaining  the  original  plan  without 
any  radical  changes. 

A  number  of  new  illustrations  are  included.  At  the  sug- 
gestion of  several  instructors  at  various  colleges,  three  new  chap- 
ters, III.,  VII.,  and  XXXVIL,  have  been  added.  These  addi- 
tions meet  the  test  applied  to  all  parts  of  the  book,  namely 
they  treat  concisely  of  subjects  concerning  which  the  beginner 
should  be  informed  before  taking  up  more  advanced  studies 
in  animal  husbandry. 

University  of  Minnesota,  H.  W.  VAUGHAN. 

July,  1919. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

An   Ideal   Feeder's   Head.     (Courtesy   Iowa    State    College.) — Frontispiece 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  Points  of  the  Steer 28 

2.  Points  of  the  Steer 29 

3.  Correct  Type  in  the  Fat  Steer.     (Photograph    by    Mr.    F.    E. 

Colburn.     Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 32 

4.  A  Steer  with  Excellent  Lines.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) .  34 

5.  A  Feed-Lot  Model.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 37 

6.  Knocking  Cattle 40 

7.  Wholesale  Cuts  of  Beef 43 

8.  Cuts  of  Beef  Indicated  in  the  Live  Animal.     (Courtesy  Iowa 

State  College.) 45 

9.  Beef  Ribs.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 50 

10.  Well-Marbled  Beef.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 51 

11.  Dairy-Type  Steer.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 63 

12.  Dairy-Type  Steer.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 67 

13.  Carcasses  of  Beef  and  Dairy  Calves.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State 

College.) 69 

14.  Carcasses  of  Beef  and  Dairy  Calves.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State 

College.) 70 

15.  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago.     (Courtesy  Mr.  A.  G.  Leonard 

and  Union  Stock  Yard  and  Transit  Co.) 77 

16.  Ideal  of  Early  Beef  Producers.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.)  86 

17.  Prime  Baby  Beef.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 88 

18.  Baby  Beeves  on  Feed.     (Courtesy  Prof.  A.  B.   Caine,  Iowa 

State  College.) 89 

19.  Prime  Fat  Heifer.     (From  111.  Bui.  78.     Courtesy  Prof.  H.  W. 

Mumford,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 91 

20.  Fancy  Selected  Feeders.     (From  111.  Bui.  78.     Courtesy  Prof. 

H.  W.  Mumford,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 96 

21.  An  Average  Load  of  Steers  on  Feed.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State 

College.) 101 

22.  Fancy  Feeder  Calves 103 

•  23.     Prime  Fat  Steers 108 

24.  Choice  Fat  Steers 109 

25.  Good  Fat  Steers.     (From  111.  Bui.  78.     Courtesy  Prof.  H.  W. 

Mumford,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 110 

26".     Prime  Baby  Beeves.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) Ill 

27.  Old-Time  Texas  Long-Horn.     (Courtesy  Prof.  F.  R.  Marshall, 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C.) 112 

28.  Modern  Western  Range  Cattle 113 

29.  Good  to  Choice  Heifer.     (From  111.  Bui.  78.     Courtesy  Prof. 

H.  W.  Mumford,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 114 

11 


12  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

30.  Good   Cutters.     (From  111.   Bui.   78.     Courtesy   Prof.   H.   W. 

Mumford,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 115 

31.  Common  or  Inferior  Canners.     (From  111.  Bui.  78.  Courtesy 

Prof.  H.  W.  Mumford,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 116 

32.  Choice  Feeder.     (From  111.  Bui.  78.     Courtesy  Prof.   H.  W. 

Mumford,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 117 

33.  Good  Feeders.     (From  111.   Bui.   78.     Courtesy  Prof.   H.   W. 

Mumford,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 118 

34.  Medium  Feeders.     (From  111.  Bui.  78.     Courtesy  Prof.  H.  W. 

Mumford,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 119 

35.  Common  or  Inferior  Feeders.     (From  111.  Bui.  78.     Courtesy 

Prof.  H.  W.  Mumford,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 120 

36.  Choice  Veal  Calf.     (From  111.  Bui.  78.     Courtesy  Prof.  H.  W. 

Mumford,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 121 

37.  Correct  Type  in  the  Beef  Sire 132 

38.  Correct  Type  in  the  Beef  Cow 134 

39.  An  Excellent  Breeding  Cow.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) . .  136 

40.  Points  of  the  Dairy  Cow 139 

41.  A  Dairy  Cow  with  Utility  Points  Emphasized.   (Courtesy  Iowa 

State  Department  of  Agriculture.) 141 

42.  A  Combination  of  Beauty  and  Utility 142 

43.  Excellent  Type  in  the  Dairy  Cow 144 

44.  An  Inferior  Dairy  Cow 148 

45.  Excellent   Type   in   the   Dairy   Bull.     (Courtesy   Iowa   State 

Department  of  Agriculture.) 152 

46.  A  Dairy  Bull  with  Strength  and  Vigor 153 

47.  Cross-Section  of  Cow's  Udder.     (From  Sisson's  Anatomy  of  the 

Domestic   Animals.     Courtesy    Dr.    Septimus    Sisson,    Ohio 
State  University.) 156 

48.  Where  Milk  is  Made 158 

49.  Circulation  To  and  From  the  Udder 159 

50.  What  Good  Purebred  Sires  Can  Do.     (From  Iowa  Bui.  188. 

Courtesy  Prof.  A.  C.  McCandlish,  Iowa  State  College.) 174 

51.  The  Dual-Purpose  Type.     (Courtesy  Mr.  J.  J.  Hill,  St.  Paul, 

Minn.) 181 

52.  The  Dual-Purpose  Type    (Courtesy  Mr.  Geo.  P.  Grout,  Duluth, 

Minn.) 183 

53.  Points  of  the  Sheep 195 

54.  Correct  Type  in  the  Fat  Wether 197 

55.  Long-Wool    Sheep.     (Courtesy    Iowa    State    Department    of 

Agriculture.) 199 

56.  Killing  Sheep  at  Chicago 204 

57.  Wholesale  Cuts  of  Mutton 206 

58.  Round-Joint  and  Break-Joints 209 

59.  Prime  Native  Lambs.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 216 

60.  Prime  Western  Lambs.     (Courtesy  Armour  &   Company,  Chi- 

cago, 111.) 218 

61.  Choice  Western  Lambs.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 219 


ILLUSTRATIONS  13 

FIG.  PAGE 

62.  Good  Lambs.     (Courtesy  Prof.  W.  C.  Coffey,  Illinois  Experi- 

ment Station.) 220 

63.  Common  or  Cull  Lambs.     (From  111.  Bui.  129.     Courtesy  Prof. 

W.  C.  Coffey,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 221 

64.  Prime  Native  Yearlings.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 222 

65.  Prime   Western    Yearlings.     (From    111.    Bui.    129.     Courtesy 

Prof.  W.  C.  Coffey,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 223 

66.  Good  Yearlings.     (From  111.  Bui.  129.     Courtesy  Prof.  W.  C. 

Coffey,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 224 

67.  Common  Wethers.     (From  111.  Bui.  129.     Courtesy  Prof.  W.  C. 

Coffey,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.)     225 

68.  Fancy  Selected  Feeder  Lambs.     (From  111.  Bui.  129.     Cour- 

tesy Prof.  W.  C.  Coffey,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 227 

69.  Good  Feeder  Lambs.     (From  111.  Bui.   129.     Courtesy  Prof. 

W.  C.  Coffey,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 228 

70.  Common  Feeder  Lambs.     (From  111.  Bui.  129.     Courtesy  Prof. 

W.  C.  Coffey,  Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 229 

71.  Correct  Type  in  the  Mutton  Breeding  Ram.     (Courtesy  Mr. 

Alan  Eltringham,  Babraham,  Cambridge,  England.) 238 

72.  Correct  Type  in  the  Breeding  Ewe 241 

73.  A  Prize-Winning  Flock 242 

74.  A  Flock  of  Uniform  Type 243 

75.  Class  A  Merino  Ram.     (Courtesy  Prof.  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.) 246 

76.  Class  B  Merino  Ram.     (Courtesy  Prof.  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.) 248 

77.  Class  C  Merino  Ram.     (Courtesy  Prof.  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.) 251 

78.  Class  B  Merino  Ewe.     (Courtesy  Prof.  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.) 252 

79.  Rambouillet  Ewe.     (Courtesy  Prof.  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S.  Bureau 

of  Animal  Industry.) 253 

80.  Wool  Fiber  Highly  Magnified 255 

81.  Cross-Section  of  a  Wool  Fiber 256 

82.  Woolen  and  Worsted  Yarns.     (From  U.  S.  House  of  Rep.  Doc. 

342,  Wool  and  Manufactures  of  Wool.) 258 

83.  Clothing  and  Combing  Wools.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206. 

Courtesy  Prof.  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry.)        261 

84.  Grades  of  Combing  Wool.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206. 

Courtesy  Prof.  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry.)        263 

85.  Grades  of  Combing  Wool.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206. 

Courtesy  Prof.  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry.)         265 

86.  Grades  of  Combing  Wool.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206. 

Courtesy  Prof.  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry.)         266 


14  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

87.  Tender  Wool  Showing  Break.     (From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206. 

Courtesy  Prof.  F.  R.  Marshall,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry.)   275 

88.  Points  of  the  Hog 284 

89.  Correct  Type  in  the  Fat  Barrow 286 

90.  Finished  Barrows.     (Courtesy  National  Duroc-Jersey  Record 

Association.) 288 

91.  Fancy  Market  Bacon  Pig.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 292 

92.  Correct  Bacon  Type.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 295 

93.  The  Hog  Hoist 298 

94.  Dressing  Hogs 299 

95.  A  View  of  the  Pork  Coolers 300 

96.  Wholesale  Cuts  of  Pork.     (After  111.  Bui.  147.) 302 

97.  Effect  of  Underline  on  Trimming  of  Side 304 

98.  Fat  and  Bacon  Carcasses  Compared.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State 

College.) 307 

99.  Unloading  Hogs  at  Chicago 320 

100.  Prime  Heavy  Hogs.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 323 

101.  Prime  Butcher  Hogs 324 

102.  Choice  Butcher  Hogs.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 325 

103.  Packing  Sow 326 

104.  An  Excellent  Boar.     (Courtesy  Mr.  W.  H.  Robbins,  Springfield, 

Ohio.) 332 

105.  Pork  Production  in  United  States  Closely  Related  to  Corn  Pro- 

duction   335 

106.  Good  Type  in  the  Breeding  Boar.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  De- 

partment of  Agriculture.) 341 

107.  Good  Type  in  the  Breeding  Sow.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  De- 

partment of  Agriculture.) 342 

108.  Skeleton  of  the  Horse.     (From  Sisson's  Anatomy  of  the  Domes- 

tic Animals,  after  Ellenberger  &  Baum,  Anatomy  for  Artists. 

Courtesy  Dr.  Septimus  Sisson,  Ohio  State  University.) 349 

109.  Bones  of  the  Fore  Leg 351 

110.  Fore  Leg  from  Knee  to  Ground 352 

111.  Bones,  Tendons,  and  Ligaments  of  the  Fore  Leg 353 

112.  Bones  of  the  Hock 354 

113.  Man  and  Horse  Compared.     (From  the  Book  of  the  Horse,  by 

permission  of  the  Gresham  Publishing  Company,  London.) . .  355 

114.  Exterior  of  the  Hoof 355 

115.  Diagram  Showing  Structure  of  Foot 356 

116.  The  Parts  of  the  Hoof 358 

117.  Attachment  of  Fore  Leg  to  Body.     (From  the  Book  of  the 

Horse,  by  permission  of  the  Gresham  Publishing  Company, 

London.) , 361 

118.  The  Horse  in  Motion 364 

119.  Front  View  of  Fore  Legs 366 

120.  Side  View  of  Fore  Legs 366 

121.  Side  View  of  Hind  Legs 367 

122.  Rear  View  of  Hind  Legs..                                  367 


ILLUSTRATIONS  15 

FIG.  PAGE 

123.  Defects  in  Fore  Legs  and  Their  Effect  on  Action 368 

124.  Sickle  Hock 370 

125.  Points  of  the  Horse.  . .  .' 387 

126.  The  Draft  Type 389 

127.  Heavy  Drafters  in  Harness 395 

128.  Before  and  After  Fattening.     (Courtesy  Mr.  B.  E.  Carmichael, 

Ohio  Experiment  Station.) 398 

129.  Carriage   or    Heavy-Harness    Type.     (Courtesy    Prof.    C.    N. 

Arnett,  Montana  State  College.) 400 

130.  The   Heavy-Harness   Type  in   Action.     (Courtesy   Mr.   Wm. 

Little,  Irvington  Farm,  Sewickley,  Pa.) 402 

131.  The  Carriage  Horse  in  Harness.     (Courtesy  The  Spur,  New 

York  City.) . 404 

132.  Sensational  Action.     (Courtesy  The  Spur,  New  York  City.) ...       407 

133.  Roadster  or  Light-Harness  Type.     (Courtesy  Hon.  John  R. 

Thompson,  Libertyville,  111.) 413 

134.  The  Light-Harness  Horse  in  Action 416 

135.  Five-Gaited  Saddle  Horse.     (Courtesy  Mrs.  R.  Tasker 

Lowndes,  Danville,  Ky.) 420 

136.  The  Saddle  Horse  in  Action.     (Courtesy  Mrs.  R.  Tasker 

Lowndes,  Danville,  Ky.) 421 

137.  The  Three-Gaited  Saddle  Type 423 

138.  A  Typical  Hunter.     (From  Nimrod's  Condition  of  Hunters,  by 

permission  of  the  John  Lane  Company,  New  York  City.) . .  ._.  _   430 

139.  The  Hunter  in  Action.     (Courtesy  The  Field,  New  York  City.)     431 

140.  A  Hunt  Team  and  Pack  of  Fox  Hounds.     (From  Nimrod's 

Condition  of  Hunters,  by  permission  of  the  John  Lane  Com- 
pany, New  York  City.) 432 

141 .  Polo  Pony  of  Excellent  Type.     (Courtesy  tThe  Spur,  New  York 

City.) 435 

142.  The  Polo  Pony  in  Action.     (Courtesy  Mr.  Harold  A.  Taylor, 

Coronado,  Cal.) 436 

143.  Horse  Market  at  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago 439 

144.  Eastern  Chunk.     (Courtesy  Prof.  C.  N.  Arnett,  Montana  State 

College.) 443 

145.  Express  Horse.     (Courtesy  Capt.  M.  G.  Thornburg,  Command- 

ing Officer  Remount  Service  Training  Camp,  Auxiliary  Re- 
mount Depot,  Camp  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  Jacksonville,  Fla.)  445 

146.  Light  Artillery  Horse.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 447 

147.  Heavy  Artillery  Horses.     (Courtesy  Capt.  M.  G.  Thornburg, 

Commanding  Officer  Remount  Service  Training  Camp, 
Auxiliary  Remount  Depot,  Camp  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  Jack- 
sonville, Fla.) 448 

148.  Fire  Horses 449 

149.  Runabout  Horse 452 

150.  Cavalry  Horse.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 453 

151.  High-Class  Pony.     (Courtesy  Mr.  Geo.  A.  Heyl,  Washington, 

111.) 454 

152.  Correct  Type  in  the  Draft  Stallion 458 


16  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

153.  Correct  Type  in  the  Draft  Mare.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  Depart- 

ment of  Agriculture.) 460 

154.  A  Highly  Successful   Sire.     (Courtesy   Mr.   Wm.   Crownover, 

Hudson,  Iowa.) 462 

155.  Blood  Will  Tell.     (Courtesy  Truman  Pioneer  Stock  Farm,  Bush- 

nell,  111.) 464 

156.  Correct  Type  in  the  Jack.     (Courtesy  Mr.  L.  M.   Monsees, 

Pettis  County,  Mo.) 469 

157.  Prize-Winning  Mules 470 

158.  High-Class  Draft  Mules 473 

159.  Mining  or  Pack  Mule.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 474 

160.  Cotton  or  Lead  Mule.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 475 

161.  Sugar  Mule.     (Courtesy  Capt.  M.  G.  Thornburg,  Commanding 

Officer  Remount  Service  Training  Camp,  Auxiliary  Remount 
Depot,  Camp  Joseph  E.  John-stoji,  Jacksonville,  Fla.) 476 

162.  Farm  or  Wheel  Mule.     (Courtesy  Iowa  State  College.) 477 

163.  Small  Pair  of  Wheel  Mules  to  Army  Wagon.     (Courtesy  Capt. 

M.   G.   Thornburg,   Commanding  Officer  Remount  Service 
Training  Camp,  Auxiliary  Remount  Depot,  Camp  Joseph  E. 

Johnston,  Jacksonville,  Fla.) 478 

164.  Bog  Spavin 482 

165.  Bone  Spavin 483 

166.  Curb 486 

167.  Ringbone  and  Cocked  Ankle 489 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

General  Introduction 19 

PART  ONE— CATTLE 
CHAPTER 

Introduction 23 

I.    Beef  Type 27 

II.    The  Beef  Carcass 40 

III.  Packing  House  By-Products  from  Cattle 57 

IV.  The  Value  of  Type  in  Beef  Making 63 

V.     American  Cattle  Markets 71 

VI.    Fashions  in  Market  Cattle 85 

VII.     Selection  of  Feeder  Steers 95 

VIII.     Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Cattle 106 

IX.    Breeding  for  the  Market 125 

X.     Dairy  Type 138 

XI.     The  Secretion  of  Milk 155 

XII.     Variations  in  the  Usefulness  of  Dairy  Cows 164 

XIII.  Breeding  for  Milk  Production. .' .  172 

XIV.  Dual-Purpose  Cattle 180 

PART  TWO— SHEEP 

Introduction 189 

XV.     Mutton  Type 194 

XVI.     The  Mutton  Carcass  and  the  Pelt 203 

XVII.    Sheep  Markets  and  Market  Classification 214 

XVIII.    Breeding  for  the  Market 235 

XIX.    The  Merino  or  Fine-Wool  Type 245 

XX.    Wools  and  Wool  Growing 255 

PART  THREE— SWINE 

Introduction 279 

XXI.     The  American  or  Lard-Type  Hog 282 

XXII.    The  Bacon-Type  Hog 290 

XXIII.  The  Hog  Carcass 297 

XXIV.  Hog  Markets  and  Pork  Packing— Past  and  Present 314 

XXV-    Market  Classification  of  Swine 322 

XXVI.     Breeding  for  the  Market 332 

PART  FOUR— HORSES 

Introduction 345 

XXVII.     Brief  Anatomical  Study  of  the  Horse 348 

XXVIII.     Some  Important  Facts  Concerning  the  Horse 361 

17 


18 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXIX.     Origin  of  the  Types  of  Horses 374 

XXX.     Draft  Type : 384 

XXXI.     The  Carriage  or  Heavy-Harness  Horse 400 

XXXII.     The  Roadster  or  Light-Harness^Horse . 409 

XXXIII.  The  Saddle  Horse 418 

XXXIV.  The  Hunter  and  Polo  Pony 428 

XXXV.     Market  Classes  of  Horses 438 

XXXVI.     Horse  Breeding 457 

XXXVII.    The  Mule 468 

XXXVIII.     Market  Classes  of  Mules 472 

XXXIX.    Unsoundness  in  the  Horse 480 

Index..  493 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 

Two  distinct  systems  of  farming  are  practiced  in  the  United\ 
States — (1)  grain  farming  and  (2)  live-stock  farming.  Grain 
farming  is  the  growing  of  crops  useful  for  food  or  clothing,  the 
income  being  derived  from  the  sale  of  these  crops.  Live-stock 
farming  is  that  system  in  which  the  crops  are  used  chiefly  or 
entirely  as  feed  for  the  live  stock  which  is  produced,  the  income 
being  derived  from  the  sale  of  animals,  milk,  and  wool. 

The  maintenance  of  soil  fertility  is  more  difficult  under  the 
first  of  these  two  systems.  Although  it  has  been  experimentally 
demonstrated  that  fertility  may  be  maintained  and  increased 
by  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  and  green  manures  without 
the  aid  of  live  stock,  nevertheless  the  keeping  of  live  stock  and 
the  utilization  of  farm  manure  afford  the  easiest  method  of 
maintaining  and  increasing  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Where 
farming  has  been  practiced  for  a  long  period  of  time,  the  most 
fertile  and  prosperous  communities  are  those  in  which  much 
live  stock  has  been  kept  and  the  manure  properly  handled  and 
applied  to  the  soil. 

Of  the  two  systems,  live-stock  farming  affords  much  greater 
opportunity  for  the  development  and  application  of  knowledge 
and  skill.  The  live-stock  farmer  must  be  equally  competent 
as  a  crop  producer  with  the  grain  farmer,  and  in  addition  must 
know  how  to  handle  and  feed  live  stock  economically.  He  must 
have  a  certain  practical  knowledge  of  animals  and  their  require- 
ments which  comes  with  long  experience,  but  which  can  be 
readily  acquired  by  one  who  has  a  liking  for  farm  animals. 

Dr.  C.  E.  Thorne  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  has  said, 
"While  it  is  true  that  meat  is  an  extravagantly  wasteful  food, 
viewed  solely  from  the  economic  standpoint,  yet  it  is  also  true 
that  the  ruling  peoples  of  the  earth  are  the  meat  eaters,  and 
the  time  is  probably  far  in  the  future  when  in  this  country  meat 
will  be  banished  from  the  tables  of  any  but  the  improvident, 
even  though  further  advance  in  its  cost  should  take  place.  The 
outlook,  therefore,  is  that  for  a  long  time  to  come  the  farmer 
who  possesses  the  ability  to  handle  live  stock  successfully  will 
find  ample  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  his  talents  and  ample 
reward  for  the  larger  ability  which  such  exercise  involves." 

19 


20          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  keeping  of  live  stock  on  the  farm  provides  a  means 
of  utilizing  as  feed  or  bedding  much  that  would  otherwise  be 
wasted.  This  applies  to  large  amounts  of  roughage  such  as 
straw  and  corn  stalks.  Meadow  aftermath  and  rough  or  stony 
land  unsuited  for  the  plow  may  be  grazed,  unmarketable  soft 
corn  may  be  fed,  and  other  similar  wastes  may  be  converted 
into  profits  where  live  stock  is  kept. 

Experiments  indicate  that  if  animals  were  kept  in  stalls  or 
pens  throughout  the  year  and  the  manure  carefully  saved,  the 
approximate  value  of  the  manure  produced  by  each  horse  or 
mule  would  be  $27,  by  each  head  of  cattle  $20,  by  each  hog  $4, 
and  by  each  sheep  $2.  The  total  fertilizing  value  of  the  manure 
produced  in  the  United  States  in  one  year  would,  therefore,  be 
$2,477,100,000.  In  this  estimate,  no  account  is  taken  of  the 
value  of  the  manure  for  improving  the  mechanical  condition 
and  drainage  of  soils,  which  is  fully  as  great  as  the  value  of  the 
phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  nitrogen  contained  in  farm  manure. 

When  fed  to  animals,  a  large  proportion  (about  80  per  cent.) 
of  the  fertilizing  element  of  the  feed  is  recovered  in  the  excre- 
ment. For  example,  if  a  ton  of  corn  is  sold  off  the  farm,  it 
removes  fertility  to  the  value  of  $6.56;  while  if  fed  to  animals, 
this  ton  of  corn  results  in  manure  worth,  while  fresh,  $5  24.  If 
this  manure  is  properly  handled  and  applied  to  the  soil,  little 
of  its  fertilizing  value  will  be  lost.  The  corresponding  figures 
for  one  ton  of  oats  are  $7.43  and  $5.94  respectively,  for  timothy 
$5.21  and  $4.16,  red  clover  $8.79  and  $7.03,  alfalfa  $8.76  and 
$7.00,  oat  straw  $3.30  and  $2.64,  corn  silage  $1.22  and  $0.97, 
whole  milk  $1.96  and  $1.52.  In  many  instances  the  best  method 
of  increasing  the  fertility  of  a  farm  is  to  buy  feeds  which  may  be 
fed  profitably  to  the  live  stock  on  hand,  and  then  carefully 
handle  and  apply  the  manure  produced.  For  example,  a  ton 
of  cottonseed  meal  or  wheat  bran  used  for  feed  gives  manure 
worth,  while  fresh,  $19.20  and  $10.19  respectively. 

The  live-stock  farmer  who  fails  to  harvest  the  manure 
crop  carefully  is  surely  overlooking  a  great  source  of  profit. 
On  the  other  hand,  animals  should  not  be  regarded  merely  as 
fertilizer  factories.  The  manure  produced  by  farm  stock,  while 
valuable,  is  secondary  in  importance  to  the  value  of  the  animals 
themselves.  The  stockman  converts  his  crops  into  animal 
products  of  higher  value  to  man,  aiming  thereby  to  reap  a  larger 
profit  than  is  possible  by  the  grain-farming  system,  and  at  the 
same  time  he  increases  the  fertility  of  his  land. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          21 

The  advantages  of  live-stock  farming  may  be  summarized 
as  follows: 

1.  Live-stock  production,  properly  conducted,  is  a  profit- 
able business. 

2.  It  provides  a  home  market  and  pays  better  than  average 
prices  for  farm  crops. 

3.  Makes  easily  possible  the  maintenance  and   improve- 
ment of  soil  fertility. 

4.  Gives  steady  employment  throughout  the  year  to  labor 
on  the  farm  and  thereby  helps  to  solve  the  farm  labor  problem. 

5.  Utilizes  as  pasture  much  land  unfit  for  the  plow. 

6.  Utilizes  much  that  would  otherwise  be  waste  on  the 
farm,  such  as  straw,  corn  stalks,  soft  corn  and  other  unsaleable 
grain,  meadow  aftermath,  many  weeds,  and  garbage. 

7.  Affords  the  best  means  of  utilizing  such  by-products 
as  tankage,   cottonseed  meal,   linseed  meal,  gluten  feed,   and 
skim  milk. 

8.  Affords  opportunity  for  higher  development  and  appli- 
cation of  skill  in  farming. 

9.  The  care  and  handling  of  live  stock  is  intensely  inter- 
esting work. 

The  stockman's  success  depends  very  largely  upon  the 
degree  to  which  his  animals  meet  with  favor  on  the  live-stock 
market.  If  he  is  to  make  a  financial  success  of  his  business, 
he  must  produce  what  the  market  wants.  Far  too  many  feeders 
of  live  stock  lack  acquaintance  with  market  demands.  Far  too 
many  breeders  devote  themselves  to  a  breed  simply  because  it 
satisfies  a  hobby  and  because  the  breed  appeals  to  their  fancy, 
rather  than  because  they  see  in  their  animals  any  special  utility. 
Unless  a  breed  of  beef  cattle  makes  possible  the  production  of 
better  beef  for  the  market;  unless  a  breed  of  swine  is  fostered 
because  in  it  is  seen  the  possibility  of  improving  the  quality  or 
cheapening  the  cost  of  pork;  unless  a  breed  of  draft  horses  is 
really  useful  when  put  to  the  test  in  the  collar;  then  such  breeds 
have  little  excuse  for  their  existence,  and  those  who  foster  them 
must  sooner  or  later  suffer  financially  for  their  efforts.  Both 
the  breeder  and  the  feeder  must  know  the  demands  of  the  open 
market  and  keep  them  always  in  mind. 

The  word  "purebred"  has  a  wonderful  charm  to  many 
persons,  and  perhaps  rightly  so,'  yet  many  an  animal,  very  in- 
ferior from  a  utility  point  of  view,  has  brought  a  large  price 
merely  because  it  had  a  pedigree  and  a  registration  number. 


22          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  word  "imported/'  when  prefixed  to  an  animal's  name,  lends 
even  greater  charm.  The  greatest  breeders  of  the  past  refused 
to  be  carried  away  by  any  charm  of  family  history  or  lure  of 
names.  They  rode  no  hobbies.  They  were  intensely  practical; 
they  never  overlooked  the  market  requirements  of  the  kind  of 
animals  they  bred.  No  animal  met  with  favor  in  their  eyes 
unless  such  favor  was  earned  by  meat  upon  the  back,  milk  in 
the  pail,  weight  and  quality  of  wool,  pounds  gained  for  pounds 
of  feed  consumed,  or  some  other  performance  of  practical  value. 
With  them  it  was  a  question  of  ultimately  furnishing  better 
animals  for  the  market  or  lowering  the  cost  of  production.  It 
must  be  just  so  with  the  master  breeders  of  the  present  and 
future. 

These  pages  aim  to  familiarize  the  reader  with  the  types 
of  farm  animals,  market  demands,  and  market  classes  of  live 
stock,  such  knowledge  being  fundamental  in  all  live-stock  work 
and  study,  and  valuable  not  only  to  breeders  and  feeders,  but 
to  all  persons  who  buy  and  use  animals. 


PART  ONE. 
CATTLE. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Cattle  are  useful  to  man  because  they  produce  meat  and 
milk,  both  of  which  are  in  such  demand  that  the  production 
and  marketing  of  them  engage  the  attention  of  many  thou- 
sands of  people  in  America.  Over  two-fifths  of  the  expendi- 
tures of  families  of  medium  income  is  for  food.  About  one-third 
of  the  national  dietary  is  composed  of  meat.  Milk,  butter, 
and  cheese  are  produced  in  vast  and  increasing  quantities,  being 
staple  articles  of  food. 

America  has  been  an  exporter  of  beef  and  dairy  products 
to  the  value  of  many  millions  of  dollars  annually.  During  the 
last  few  years  these  exports  have  declined  markedly  and  we 
have  now  begun  to  import  beef  from  South  America.  The 
United  States  practically  dominated  the  world's  export  trade 
in  fresh,  chilled,  and  frozen  beef  with  its  contribution  of  over 
63  per  cent,  of  the  total  export  trade  of  the  nine  surplus  countries 
for  the  ten  years  1895-1904.  For  the  next  five  years  the  average 
fell  to  33  per  cent.,  and  in  the  next  year,  1910,  the  fraction  was 
9.4  per  cent  ;  in  1911,4.9  per  cent.;  and  in  1912,  only  1.6  per  cent. 
While  the  United  States  was  experiencing  this  downfall  in  exports 
of  beef,  Argentina  grew  from  17  per  cent,  of  the  total  export 
trade  in  the  earlier  years  to  80  per  cent,  in  1912.  If  to  this  be 
added  the  15  per  cent,  due  to  Australia,  and  3  per  cent,  due  to 
New  Zealand,  in  1912,  almost  the  entire  export  trade  in  this 
class  of  beef  is  accounted  for. 

The  decline  in  America's  exports  of  beef  is  partially  due  to 
a  decrease  in  production,  but  is  chiefly  due  to  a  population  in- 
creasing at  such  a  tremendous  rate  that  the  increase  in  home 
production  of  food  does  not  keep  parallel  with  it.  The  United 
States  had  7  millions  of  people  in  1810,  17  millions  in  1840, 
38  millions  in  1870,  76  millions  in  1900,  and  93  millions  in  1910. 
Will  it  not  be  150  millions  in  1940,  and  200  millions  in  1960? 
Furthermore,  only  one-third  of  the  population  having  census 
occupations  is  agricultural,  and  the  fraction  has  declined  from 

23 


24          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

83  per  cent,  in  1820  to  77.5  per  cent,  in  1840,  47  per  cent,  in 
1870,  44  per  cent,  in  1880,  39  per  cent,  in  1890,  35  per  cent,  in 
1900,  and  32.4  per  cent,  in  1910.  These  figures  do  not  mean 
that  our  agricultural  population  has  absolutely  declined;  on 
the  contrary,  it  was  never  so  large  in  number  as  it  is  today, 
with  over  33,000,000  men,  women,  and  children.  The  point 
is  that  the  consumers  of  food-stuffs  in  America  have  increased 
at  a  much  more  rapid  rate  than  have  the  producers.  The 
producer  of  live  stock  in  this  country  is  assured  of  ready  sale 
for  all  his  products  at  remunerative  prices. 

Excepting  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  United  States  are  the  most  liberal  eaters  of  beef,  mutton, 
and  pork.  The  average  per  capita  consumption  of  dressed  beef 
in  this  country  was  78.4  pounds  in  1918,  and  the  total  consump- 
tion of  dressed  beef,  veal,  mutton,  pork,  and  lard  amounted  to 
193.5  pounds  per  capita.  According  to  the  latest  available 
figures,  Cuba  follows  with  124  pounds,  the  United  Kingdom 
119  pounds,  Germany  113  pounds,  France  80  pounds,  Denmark 
76  pounds,  Belgium  70  pounds,  and  Sweden  62  pounds.  The 
average  for  Australia  is  262.6  pounds,  and  for  New  Zealand 
212.5  pounds. 

The  production  of  beef,  mutton,  and  pork  throughout 
the  world,  outside  of  China,  is  estimated  to  be  about  50  billion 
pounds  a  year,  dressed  weight,  including  lard.  The  United 
States  by  far  leads  all  other  countries  in  the  production  as  well 
as  the  consumption  of  meat  and  meat  products.  The  census 
of  1910  estimated  that  the  meat  produced  in  the  United  States 
in  the  year  was  16,940,000,000  pounds,  embracing  beef,  veal, 
mutton,  lamb,  and  pork,  including  lard.  If  the  extra-edible 
parts  are  added,  the  grand  total  for  1910  was  19,712,000,000 
pounds.  Slaughtering  and  meat  packing  ranks  first  in  value 
of  products  among  all  the  manufacturing  industries  of  the 
United  States. 

Milk  may  be  regarded  as  more  fixed  than  meat  in  the  family 
dietary.  The  number  of  milk  cows  in  this  country  has  steadily 
increased  from  the  earliest  enumeration  in  the  census  of  1850, 
when  the  number  of  these  cows  on  farms  was  6,400,000,  to  the 
last  census  of  1910,  when  the  number  was  20,600,000.  The 
estimate  for  1919  is  23,467,000.  The  yield  of  milk  per  cow  in 
1918  was  estimated  to  be  8.2  quarts  per  day  for  287  days  of  the 
year,  or  588  gallons.  Assuming  that  80  per  cent,  of  the  total 
number  of  dairy  cows  are  of  milking  age,  the  total  production  of 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          25 

milk  on  farms  in  the  United  States  was  11,044,000,000  gallon? 
in  1918.  If  the  production  of  cows  in  towns  and  villages  were 
included  it  would  add  about  5  per  cent,  to  the  above  estimate. 

Experience  has  shown  that  it  requires  a  certain  kind  or 
type  of  cow  to  produce  a  large  flow  of  milk,  and  quite  a  differ- 
ent kind  to  produce  beef.  For  this  reason,  two  distinct  kinds 
of  cattle  have  been  developed — dairy  cattle  and  beef  cattle. 
The  dairy  cow  possesses  certain  characteristics  which  make  her 
useful  as  a  machine  for  producing  milk,  and  we  call  this  combi- 
nation of  characteristics  dairy  type.  Likewise,  the  beef  animal 
has  certain  characteristics  which  stamp  it  as  an  animal  that 
will  convert  feed  into  flesh  rather  than  into  milk,  and  we  call 
this  combination  of  characteristics  beef  type.  This  gives  us  an 
understanding  of  what  is  meant  by  type,  and  we  may  now  define 
type  by  saying  it  is  that  combination  of  characteristics  desired 
by  the  breeder  which  makes  an  animal  highly  useful  for  a  specific 
purpose. 

Some  breeders  have  endeavored  to  establish  what  is  called 
a  dual-purpose  type  of  cattle.  They  believe  there  is  need  of  a 
cow  that  can  produce  both  beef  and  milk,  and  they  have,  there- 
fore, tried  to  combine  dairy  type  and  beef  type  as  nearly  as 
possible.  The  dual-purpose  cow  does  not  give  as  much  milk 
as  the  dairy  cow,  nor  does  she  make  as  much  beef  as  the  beef 
cow.  At  present  the  demand  for  dual-purpose  cattle  is  com- 
paratively limited,  but  some  authorities  have  predicted  that 
many  farms  will  ultimately  adopt  the  dual-purpose  type  as  the 
one  most  profitable. 

Various  breeds  of  cattle  have  been  evolved  to  meet  the 
demands  for  each  of  the  three  types  of  cattle.  Each  breed  has 
its  own  peculiar  and  special  features  not  found  in  individuals 
of  other  breeds.  These  special  characteristics  constitute  what 
is  called  the  breed  type.  For  example,  there  are  six  breeds  of 
beef  cattle  all  of  which  possess  beef  type,  yet  each  breed  is  dis- 
tinctive in  certain  points  which  make  up  the  breed  type. 

The  breeds  of  beef  cattle  are  the  Shorthorn,  Polled  Shorthorn, 
Hereford,  Polled  Hereford,  Aberdeen-Angus,  and  Galloway. 

The  dairy  breeds  are  the  Holstein-Friesian,  Jersey,  Guern- 
sey, Ayrshire,  Brown  Swiss,  Dutch  Belted,  French  Canadian, 
and  Kerry. 

Dual-purpose  demands  are  met  by  the  Red  Polled  and  the 
Devon.  The  Shorthorn  breed  is  also  noted  for  many  indi- 
viduals and  several  families  of  dual-purpose  type. 


26  TYPES  OF  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Years  ago,  various  groups  of  men  in  different  localities  under 
different  conditions  and  with  different  sorts  of  unimproved  cattle 
took  up  beef  production,  or  dairying,  or  a  combination  of  the 
two.  In  this  way  originated  the  various  breeds  of  the  three 
types  of  cattle  as  we  know  them  today.  Competition  does  not 
narrow  each  type  down  to  a  single  best  breed,  because  no  one 
breed  is  best  under  all  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  and  food  supply. 

As  compared  to  other  kinds  of  farm  live  stock,  cattle  have  a 
special  advantage  in  their  ability  to  utilize  coarse  roughage 
such  as  coarse  hay,  corn  stalks,  and  silage,  and  the  coarser  pas- 
tures of  ranker  growth.  No  other  farm  animal  will  utilize  so 
much  of  what  would  otherwise  be  waste. 

Definition  of  Cattle  Terms. 

Bull. — Breeding  male,  any  age. 

Cow. — Mature  female. 

Heifer. — A  female  under  three  years  old,  and  usually  one 
that  has  not  produced  offspring. 

Calf.— Young  animal,  usually  under  one  year  old. 

Steer. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  when  a  calf.  The  best 
age  to  castrate  calves  is  six  to  eight  weeks  old,  although  they 
may  be  castrated  from  a  week  to  six  months  old.  The  longer 
castration  is  delayed  the  greater  is  the  risk  of  loss  from  the 
operation  and  the  greater  the  liability  of  coarseness  developing 
in  head,  neck,  and  forequarters. 

Stag. —  Unsexed  male,  castrated  when  mature  or  so  far  ad- 
vanced toward  maturity  that  masculinity  is  plainly  evident 
in  head,  neck,  and  forequarters.  Well-developed  masculine 
character  constitutes  coarseness  in  a  market  animal. 

Spayed  heifer. — Unsexed  heifer.  Spaying  is  performed  by 
making  an  incision  in  front  of  the  left  hip  and  removing  the 
ovaries.  The  scar  left  after  the  operation  is  about  the  only 
sure  method  of  identifying  such  heifers. 

Free-martin. — An  imperfectly-sexed  heifer  born  twin  with  a 
bull.  They  are  infertile.  All  heifers  born  twin  with  bulls  are 
not  free-martins. 


CHAPTER  I. 
BEEF  TYPE. 

The  following  description  applies  particularly  to  the  fat- 
tened steer.  Special  or  additional  features  of  type  which  should 
characterize  the  beef  bull  and  the  beef  cow  will  receive  attention 
later.  It  should  be  understood,  however,  that  all  good  beef 
animals — steers,  heifers,  cows,  and  bulls — are  similar  in  the 
essentials  of  beef  type;  therefore,  the  description  given  here 
applies  in  almost  every  respect  to  all  classes  of  beef  animals. 

General  appearance. — When  correct  in  form  and  fatness, 
the  beef  animal  presents  a  massive,  blocky  appearance  from 
every  angle  of  view.  As  viewed  from  the  side,  the  body  is 
rectangular,  very  deep,  and  short  from  shoulder  to  hip.  The 
body  is  very  wide,  and  the  legs  are  short  and  placed  squarely 
under  the  body.  Two  dimensions  of  the  beef  animal  should 
be  great — width  and  depth;  the  third  dimension,  length,  should 
be  relatively  small.  There  should  be  great  smoothness  of  out- 
line everywhere,  all  the  parts  being  uniformly  developed  and 
so  blended  as  to  form  a  symmetrical  and  balanced  animal.  The 
back  is  uniformly  broad,  the  more  width  the  better.  From  a 
side  view,  the  top  line  and  underline  are  straight  and  parallel. 
A  fullness  of  outline  is  presented  everywhere. 

An  animal  showing  too  much  length  of  middle  is  referred 
to  as  "rangy,"  while  animals  standing  high  off  the  ground  on 
long  legs  are  termed  "leggy."  The  head  should  be  short  and 
broad,  and  the  neck  short  and  thick.  Such  a  head  and  neck 
are  associated  or  correlated  with  the  desired  type  of  body. 
Rangy,  leggy  animals  usually  have  long  narrow  heads  and 
long  thin  necks.  With  only  the  heads  and  necks  of  a  number 
of  beef  animals  in  view,  the  best  animals  may  be  picked  out 
with  reasonable  certainty  by  the  general  proportions  of  the 
heads  and  necks.  A  straight-edge  laid  against  the  side  of  a 
beef  animal  should  touch  the  shoulder  and  hindquarter  and 
all  points  between  them. 

The  head  should  be  of  medium  size,  short,  and  broad, 
with  a  broad  muzzle,  indicating  capacity  for  grazing  and  feeding. 
The  nostrils  should  be  large,  indicating  capacity  for  breathing 
and  hence  a  good  constitution.  The  face  line,  from  a  side  view, 

27 


28 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


should  be  straight  or  show  a  slight  inward  curve  or  dish  from 
eyes  to  muzzle.  The  head  below  the  eyes  should  be  as  short 
as  possible,  the  eyes  themselves  being  wide  apart,  large,  promi- 
nent, bright,  and  clear,  and  indicative  of  a  quiet  disposition.  A 
quiet  expression  of  the  eyes  means  a  quiet,  contented  feeder 
that  will  transform  feed  into  flesh;  a  nervous,  restless  expression 
is  evidence  of  an  unsatisfactory  feeder  that  will  neither  consume 
enough  feed  nor  store  up  the  energy  of  the  feed  consumed,  but 
waste  it  in  nervousness  and  too  much  moving  about.  The  fore- 
head should  be  very  wide.  The  jaws  should  be  broad  and  well 
muscled.  If  horns  are  present  they  should  not  be  coarse  at 
their  base,  but  rather  fine  and  nicely  shaped  and  proportioned, 


35- 


36- 


40- 


1.  Muzzle 

2.  Mouth 

3.  Nostril 

4.  Face 

5.  Eye 

6.  Forehead 

7.  Ear 
>  8.  Poll 

9.  Tongue  root 

10.  Brisket 

11.  Dewlap 

12.  Neck 

13.  Crest 


Fig.  1.     Points  of  the  Steer. 


14.  Shoulder  vein 

15.  Point  of  shoulder 

16.  Top  of  shoulders 

17.  Shoulder 

18.  Fore-rib 
H19.  Elbow 

20.  Arm 

21.  Knee 

22.  Shank 

23.  Foot 

24.  Fore  flank 

25.  Crops 

26.  Back 


27.  Ribs 

28.  Paunch  or  belly. 

29.  Loin 

30.  Hip  or  hook 

31.  Rump 

-  32.  Tail-head 
-33.  Thigh 

34.  Hock 

35.  Tail 

36.  Switch 

38.  Cod 

39.  Hind  flank 

40.  Dew  claw 


tapering  evenly  to  their  tips.  The  ears  should  be  of  medium 
size,  fine  texture,  and  neatly  attached  to  the  head.  The  entire 
head  should  be  clean-cut,  all  lines  being  sharply  defined,  giving 
a  well-bred  appearance,  sometimes  referred  to  as  "character." 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


29 


The  neck  should  be  short,  thick,  and  muscular.  The  throat 
should  be  neat  and  trim,  while  at  the  shoulders  the  neck  should 
show  depth  and  fullness.  The  line  where  the  neck  and  shoulder 
join  is  called  the  "shoulder  vein,"  and  we  like  this  part  to  be 
filled  out  plump  and  full.  A  long  neck  lacking  in  thickness  is 
frequently  found,  and  it  is  undesirable  chiefly  because  it  is 
associated  with  a  rangy  type  of  body.  When  the  animal  is 
standing  in  natural  position,  with  the  head  up,  the  top  line  of 
the  neck  should  be  slightly  arched  and  the  poll  of  the  head  should 
be  slightly  higher  than  the  top  of  the  shoulders. 

The  shoulders  should  be  very  smooth,  blending  perfectly 
with  the  rest  of  the  body.  This  conformation  is  secured  when 


32.  Tail-head 

33.  Thighs 


Fig.  2.     Points  of  the  Steer. 

34.  Hocks 

35.  Tail 

36.  Switch 


37.  Twist 

38.  Cod 


the  shoulder  blade  lies  snugly  against  the  ribs  beneath,  and  is 
covered  over  with  a  uniformly  thick  layer  of  flesh.  The  top  of 
the  shoulders  should  not  be  sharp  and  fine,  nor  yet  so  wide  that 
the  tops  of  the  shoulder  blades  are  prominent  and  outstanding, 
but  should  be  moderately  wide  and  nicely  rounded  over  with 
flesh.  Rough,  angular  shoulders,  unevenly  covered,  are  among 
the  most  common  defects  of  beef  cattle.  When  the  shoulders 
are  not  properly  laid  in,  but  are  wide  and  open,  the  appearance 
of  the  animal  is  injured,  the  fleshing  over  the  shoulder  is  not 


30          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

taken  on  properly,  and,  when  slaughtered,  the  carcass  lacks 
the  smooth,  tidy  appearance  so  much  desired.  A  prominent 
shoulder  also  causes  the  development  behind  it  to  appear  in- 
sufficient. 

The  brisket  and  chest  are  highly  important.  The  former 
should  carry  forward  prominent  and  wide,  and  be  well  fleshed, 
yet  neat,  presenting  a  full,  well-developed,  and  trim  appear^ 
ance.  The  chest,  which  lies  between  the  shoulders  and  imme- 
diately behind  them,  ought  to  be  very  wide  and  deep.  Too 
much  width  and  depth  are  never  found.  A  full,  deep  chest 
with  large  heart-girth  indicates  a  rugged  sort  of  animal  possessed 
of  much  constitutional  vigor.  The  floor  of  the  chest  should 
be  wide,  as  shown  by  the  distance  between  the  two  fore  legs, 
provided  width  at  this  point  is  not  due  merely  to  prominent, 
open  shoulders  which  set  the  fore  legs  wide  apart.  The  fore- 
rib,  lying  just  behind  the  shoulder,  should  not  be  flat,  but  should 
arch  boldly  so  that  no  flatness  or  depression  exists  immediately 
behind  the  shoulder.  Many  beef  animals  present  a  hollowness 
or  flatness  of  fore-rib  which  detracts  much  from  the  desired 
smoothness  of  conformation,  and  reduces  the  chest  capacity. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  animal  carries  down  deep 
and  full  at  the  front  flanks  just  behind  the  elbows.  The  butcher 
cares  nothing  for  a  beef  animal's  constitution,  but  every  intelli- 
gent feeder  places  great  emphasis  on  the  depth  and  width  of 
chest,  which  indicate  to  him  that  the  steer  will  be  a  good  doer 
in  the  feed-lot.  Briefly  summing  up  all  the  points  in  the  descrip- 
tion thus  far,  we  may  say  that  the  f orequarters  should  be  smooth- 
ly laid,  smoothly  and  thickly  fleshed,  and  very  wide  and  deep, 
showing  no  lack  of  constitution  anywhere. 

The  front  legs  should  be  short  and  placed  squarely  under 
the  animal.  They  should  come  straight  down,  and  the  toes 
should  point  straight  ahead.  For  reasons  already  given,  the 
fore  legs  should  be  set  well  apart.  The  arm  should  be  wide 
and  muscular  at  its  attachment  to  the  shoulder.  Fineness  of 
bone  and  smoothness  of  joints  are  evidences  of  quality,  whereas 
rough,  coarse  animals  have  heavy  joints  and  big  shank  bones. 

The  back  carries  great  weight,  and  it  is  desirable  that  it 
be  straight  and  strong.  When  some  people  refer  to  the  back 
they  include  the  entire  top  of  the  animal  from  shoulders  to  tail. 
Others  mean  the  top  from  shoulders  to  hips.  The  score  card 
restricts  the  meaning  of  this  term  to  that  portion  of  the  top 
lying  between  the  shoulders  and  the  last  rib,  which  is  some 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          31 

distance  in  front  of  the  hip.  In  this  description  we  shall  use 
the  word  in  the  score-card  sense.  The  back  furnishes  one  of 
the  high-priced  cuts  of  beef,  and  always  receives  critical  atten- 
tion in  judging.  It  is  important,  first  of  all,  that  the  back  be 
very  wide  in  order  that  it  may  carry  the  maximum  amount 
of  meat.  Beef  cattle  are  never  criticized  for  too  much  width 
in  this  part.  Width  is  secured  when  the  ribs  arch  boldly  from 
the  spinal  column;  if  the  ribs  are  not  arched,  the  back  must 
necessarily  be  narrow. 

Fully  as  important  as  the  width  of  back  is  the  depth  of 
flesh  which  covers  this  part.  When  touched  with  the  fingers, 
great  depth  and  mellowness  should  be  found.  No  mere  beauty 
of  outline  or  stylishness  of  appearance  can  ever  make  up  for 
lack  of  fleshing  in  a  beef  animal.  The  flesh  must  be  there. 
Dimples  or  ties,  rough  spots,  or  uneven  patches  of  fat  detract 
from  the  value  because  the  carcass  of  such  an  animal  will  be 
rough  in  appearance  and  uneven  in  its  covering  of  flesh.  If  a 
wide  back  furnishes  greater  space  for  meat  than  does  a  narrow 
one,  then  length  of  back  might  be  advised  for  the  same  reason. 
But  a  long  back  is  not  wanted  because  one  of  the  outstanding 
features  of  correct  beef  type  is  compactness,  by  which  is  meant 
shortness  from  head  to  tail,  and  especially  shortness  from  shoul- 
der to  hip.  We  naturally  expect  the  back  to  be  short,  because 
length  there  is  associated  with  the  undesirable  rangy  type  of 
animal  too  often  found. 

The  ribs  should  not  only  be  well  sprung,  but  should  also 
carry  down  with  much  depth  to  help  make  a  roomy  or  capacious 
body.  A  wide,  deep  middle  is  essential  to  digestive  capacity. 
Cattle  have  thirteen  pairs  of  ribs.  In  beef  cattle  they  should 
be  placed  close  together  along  the  sides,  and  the  last  pair  should 
come  as  close  to  the  hips  as  possible.  This  provides  a  frame- 
work upon  which  the  fleshing  can  be  smoothly  laid.  When 
there  is  much  space  between  the  ribs,  a  smooth  fleshing  is  not 
often  found,  for  then  the  position  of  the  ribs  will  be  marked  by 
ridges  and  there  will  be  hollows  between  them.  When  the  dis- 
tance is  great  between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip,  it  is  impossible 
to  get  that  part  filled  out  smoothly;  instead  there  will  be  a  large 
"hunger  hollow"  r  which  detracts  much  from  the  appearance. 
Once  more,  therefore,  the  necessity  for  compactness  (shortness) 
of  middle  is  emphasized. 

The  development  along  the  side  of  the  animal  should  be 
such  that  all  points  fill  out  plump  and  smooth  to  meet  the  same 


32  TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

straight  line  from  front  to  rear.  The  fleshing  over  the  ribs 
should  be  thick,  smooth,  and  even,  and  the  hind  flank  should 
be  well  filled  with  flesh  so  that  when  the  hand  is  placed  under 
it  and  lifted,  it  is  found  to  be  thick,  full,  and  heavy.  If  the 
front  and  hind  flanks  carry  down  properly,  the  underline  will 
be  straight,  as  it  ought  to  be. 

At  this  point  it  is  well  to  state  that  while  the  middle  of  a 
beef  animal  should  be  wide  and  deep,  a  distended  condition  of 
the  paunch  is  not  desirable.  When  this  occurs,  the  animal  is 


Fig.  3.     Correct  Type  in  the  Fat  Steer. 

Two-year-old  Aberdeen- Angus  steer,  Victor,  Grand  Champion  at  the 
International  Live  Stock  Show  in  1911.  Fed  and  exhibited  by  Iowa  State 
College.  Sold  for  ninety  cents  per  pound. 

referred  to  as  "paunchy."  The  lines  of  the  middle,  both  at 
the  sides  and  along  the  belly,  should  be  straight  and  trim,  giving 
a  neat,  tidy  appearance.  Given  good  arch  and  depth  of  rib, 
a  steer  may  be  straight  and  trim  in  his  middle  without  sacrificing 
proper  feeding  capacity,  and  such  animals  suit  the  butcher 
much  better  than  paunchy  ones,  because  an  excessive  paunch 
means  much  waste  when  the  animal  is  slaughtered. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          33 

The  loin  is  that  portion  of  the  top  lying  between  the  rear 
edge  of  the  back  and  the  hips.  It  has  no  ribs  below  it,  but 
consists  of  large  muscles,  affording  the  very  choicest  cuts  of 
the  entire  carcass — the  porterhouse  and  sirloin.  The  loin  should 
be  very  wide  and  very  thickly  fleshed  to  afford  as  high  develop- 
ment of  this  part  as  possible.  The  covering  of  flesh  should  also 
be  smooth  and  firm.  We  like  the  loin  to  be  thickly  padded 
and  plumped  up  with  muscle  having  the  proper  degree  of  fatness. 
Such  a  loin  may  be  described  as  a  "live"  loin — one  that  exhibits 
resiliency  or  springiness  when  handled.  A  loin  that  is  flat  and 
that  handles  soft  and  "dead"  is  deficient  in  lean  meat  and  has 
too  much  fat.  The  loin-edge  is  sometimes  rough  and  patchy, 
due  to  an  uneven  distribution  of  the  fat,  whereas  it  should  be 
smooth  and  even. 

The  hips  should  be  laid  in  snugly,  and  nicely  covered  over 
with  flesh.  The  eye  should  not  be  able  to  locate  the  hip  of  a 
well-fattened  animal;  only  when  the  hands  are  used  should  the 
point  of  the  hip  be  possible  of  location.  This  helps  to  give  the 
smoothness  desired  in  both  the  living  animal  and  the  carcass 
which  it  ultimately  yields.  Wide  hips  cannot  be  covered  over 
with  flesh,  and  the  animal  suffers  a  rough  and  ragged  appear- 
ance. 

The  rump  is  the  top  between  hips  and  tail-head.  It  should 
be  level  so  as  to  carry  out  the  top  line  straight  and  square  to 
the  end  of  the  body.  Some  animals  droop  in  the  rump,  and 
some  rise  prominently;  in  each  case  the  conformation  is  faulty. 
The  rump  should  be  as  long  as  possible  and  as  wide  as  the  rest 
of  the  top.  This  permits  a  maximum  fleshing  and  provides 
the  most  attractive  form.  The  width  should  be  carried  as 
uniformly  as  possible  from  hips  to  end  of  rump.  As  the  tail- 
head  is  approached,  there  is  bound  to  be  some  rounding  off, 
yet  this  does  not  mean  that  the  end  of  the  rump  need  be  nar- 
row or  peaked.  Rather  it  should  be  wide  and  plumped  out 
with  flesh.  Beef  cattle  very  frequently  exhibit  roughness  about 
the  tail-head  or  at  the  end  of  the  rump  on  each  side  of  the  tail, 
due  to  the  accumulation  of  patches  or  gobs  of  fat.  Smoothness 
here  indicates  better  fleshing  qualities. 

The  thigh  begins  at  the  border  of  the  rump  and  extends 
down  the  outside  of  the  leg.  It  should  be  wide  and  plump 
from  every  angle  of  view,  and  come  down  with  some  bulge  on 
the  outside  to  where  the  thigh  naturally  narrows.  The  plump- 
ness and  thickness  should  carry  down  as  close  to  the  hock  as 


34          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

possible;  viewed  from  the  side,  the  thigh  should  be  very  wide, 
and  when  the  animal  is  viewed  from  the  rear  there  ought  to 
be  much  thickness  from  side  to  side. 

The  twist  is  the  fleshing  between  the  hind  legs,  just  as  the 
thigh  includes  the  fleshing  on  the  outside.  It  should  be  very 
deep  and  full,  filling  in  the  space  between  the  legs,  and  carrying 
down  as  far  as  possible  toward  the  hocks.  The  thighs  and 
twist  furnish  the  third  most  valuable  cut  of  the  carcass  and  are 
worthy  of  careful  examination  in  judging. 

The  hocks  and  legs,  by  their  position,  indicate  the  capacity 
for  fleshing  in  the  twist  and  also  on  the  thigh.  If  the  hocks 
are  straight  and  properly  placed,  showing  no  special  tendency 


Fig.  4.     A  Steer  with  Excellent  Lines. 

Aberdeen-Angus  steer,  Blackrock,  Grand  Champion  at  the  International 
Live  Stock  Show  in  1905.  Fed  and  exhibited  by  Iowa  State  College.  This 
steer  has  straight  side  lines  and  a  trim  middle.  He  is  free  from  paunchiness. 

to  come  together,  they  will  be  associated  usually  with  more 
heavily  fleshed  hindquarters  than  otherwise.  It  is  important, 
therefore,  that  the  hocks  stand  squarely  under  the  animal. 
The  shanks  should  carry  straight  down,  and,  as  in  front,  they 
should  be  short  and  show  refinement  in  bone.  The  joints  of 
the  leg  should  be  clean-cut. 

The  quality  of  the  beef  animal  is  shown  in  bone,  skin,  hair, 
and  head.  Quality,  which  is  synonomous  with  refinement,  is 
essential  because  it  insures  against  coarseness  of  texture  in  all 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          35 

parts,  especially  the  texture  of  the  muscles.  The  head  should 
be  of  medium  size  and  should  be  clean-cut,  presenting  a  sort 
of  chiseled  appearance.  The  heads  of  many  animals  do  not 
exhibit  that  "finishing  touch"  which  characterizes  the  head 
expressive  of  refinement.  Heavy  bone,  large  rough  joints,  and 
heavy  horns  show  lack  of  quality.  One  of  the  best  indications 
of  quality  is  the  hide,  which  should  be  found  pliable,  easily 
stretched,  and  only  medium  thick  when  rolled  up  in  the  hand. 
The  hair  should  be  soft  and  fine. 

Quality  is  again  shown  by  the  smoothness  of  the  animal, 
both  in  frame  and  in  fleshing.  Coarse  shoulders,  rough  hips, 
and  rough,  uneven  flesh  show  lack  of  quality.  Quality  and 
good  breeding  are  usually  found  together,  and  certainly  the 
animal  with  quality  is  the  most  desirable  type  for  the  producer 
as  well  as  for  the  consumer.  Well-bred  animals  respond  best 
when  fed  out  for  the  market.  Coarse,  rough  animals  yield 
unattractive  carcasses  and  inferior  cuts  of  meat. 

Animals  are  sometimes  found  which  possess  too  much 
quality.  In  such  cases  there  is  a  delicacy  of  make-up;  quality 
is  purchased  at  the  expense  of  constitution.  Extreme  quality 
is  also  purchased  at  the  expense  of  size,  for  over-refined  animals 
are  usually  undersized.  The  proper  degree  of  quality  represents 
the  middle  ground  between  two  extremes,  each  of  which  is 
undesirable.  This  middle  ground  is  hard  to  define;  it  may  be 
said  that  all  the  quality  is  wanted  which  may  be  had  without 
sacrifice  of  constitution  and  proper  size. 

The  fleshing  of  beef  cattle  is  of  the  highest  importance. 
The  fact  that  the  butcher's  block  is  the  ultimate  end,  and  beef 
the  ultimate  product,  must  never  be  lost  sight  of  by  the  breeder, 
feeder,  or  judge  of  beef  cattle.  All  over  the  body,  and  more 
especially  in  the  back,  loin,  and  hindquarters,  there  should  be 
found  a  uniformly  deep  covering  of  flesh.  The  flat  of  the  hand 
pressed  along  the  shoulder,  back,  or  side  should  find  a  deep, 
mellow  fleshing,  without  any  patchiness  or  bare  spots.  When 
mature  cattle  are  heavily  fed  they  thicken  in  their  flesh,  and 
this  increase  in  thickness  is  due  to  a  mixing  of  fat  among  the 
muscle  fibers,  a  storing  of  fat  between  the  muscles  and  a  laying 
on  of  fat  just  beneath  the  skin. 

When  studying  the  fleshing  of  an  animal  it  is  well  to  keep 
in  mind  that  the  fleshing  is  made  up  partly  of  lean  meat  and 
partly  of  fat.  The  lean  meat  or  muscle  which  an  animal  carries 
is  often  called  the  "natural  flesh."  We  want  as  much  natural 


36          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

flesh  as  it  is  possible  to  obtain.  When  a  steer  is  fat  it  is  rather 
difficult  to  determine  how  much  natural  flesh  he  has.  In  order 
to  estimate  this  it  is  necessary  to  examine  the  development 
of  flesh  in  those  parts  which  take  on  very  little  fat,  as  for  example 
the  thighs,  arm,  and  neck.  Width  in  the  crops  is  another  good 
indication  of  heavy  muscling. 

The  proportion  of  muscle  in  the  make-up  of  an  animal  is 
evident  at  birth  (See  Fig.  13),  and  feeding  will  not  increase  it 
beyond  a  very  narrow  limit.  Henry  and  Morrison  of  the  Wis- 
consin Station*  discuss  this  point  as  follows:  "Since  the  lean- 
meat  tissues  of  the  body  are  composed  mostly  of  muscular 
fibers,  any  gain  in  these  tissues  can  be  caused  solely  by  an  in- 
crease in  the  number  or  by  the  thickening  of  these  fibers.  The 
fibers  increase  in  number  by  dividing  lengthwise,  which  process 
occurs  with  farm  animals  only  while  young  and  growing.  Indeed, 
recent  investigations  show  that  with  some  animals  all  increase 
in  the  number  of  muscular  fibers  occurs  before  birth,  the  muscles 
of  the  new  born  young  containing  as  many  as  those  of  the  mature 
animal.  The  fibers  of  the  muscles  can  thicken  to  only  a  limited 
extent,  and  hence  the  muscular  tissues,  or  lean  meat,  of  the 
mature  animal  cannot  be  increased  beyond  a  relatively  narrow 
limit,  compared  with  the  great  storage  of  fat  which  may  occur." 

A  starving  animal  draws  upon  its  muscular  tissue  to  support 
life,  and  will  rapidly  repair  its  tissues  upon  a  return  to  favorable 
conditions,  but  from  the  standpoint  of  farm  and  feed-lot  con- 
ditions this  fact  does  not  enter  into  consideration  and  therefore 
does  not  alter  the  statements  which  are  here  made.  The  only 
factors  which  the  feeder  has  under  his  control  are  growth  and 
fatness.  If  the  animal  is  mature,  feeding  is  almost  exclusively 
a  fattening  process;  if  the  animal  is  not  mature,  fattening  is 
accompanied  by  growth  in  bone  and  muscle.  Practically  speak- 
ing, we  can  no  more  increase  the  proportionate  amount  of  muscle 
by  feeding  than  we  can  add  quality,  or  a  better  head,  or  a 
straighter  top  line.  All  these  are  breeding  problems — not 
feeding  problems.  Feeding  will  fatten  a  steer,  increase  his 
weight,  and  improve  his  form  and  appearance,  but  it  has  little 
or  no  effect  upon  the  proportion  of  natural  flesh  in  his  make-up. 
The  degree  of  fatness  shown  by  a  steer  is  referred  to  as  his  "con- 
dition," and  this  feature  will  now  be  discussed. 


*  Feeds  and  Feeding,  p.  75. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          37 

Condition. — In  comparison  with  dairy  cattle,  one  of  the 
most  distinctive  features  of  beef  cattle  is  their  ability  to  fatten 
easily  and  to  deposit  the  fat  in  and  around  the  muscles,  there- 
by making  the  meat  tender  and  juicy.  As  pointed  out  above, 
the  feeding  of  beef  cattle  is  largely  a  fattening  process.  The 
practical  feeder  knows,  however,  that  it  is  not  profitable  to 
feed  an  animal  up  to  his  limit  of  fatness,  because  the  last  gains 
a  steer  makes  are  most  costly,  and  such  animals  do  not  suit 
the  consumer  of  beef  as  well  as  a  steer  fattened  in  moderation. 
Thin  cattle  are  characterized  by  a  very  firm  fleshing,  so  that 
when  the  finger-tips  are  pressed  on  the  back  and  ribs  the  flesh 
is  found  to  be  hard  and  unyielding.  When  such  cattle  are 


Fig.  5.     A  Feed-Lot  Model. 

Prince  Rock,  a  grade  Aberdeen-Angus  steer,  fed  and  owned  by  Iowa 
State  College.  Note  the  extreme  depth  of  chest  and  middle  in  this  steer, 
giving  him  a  strong  constitution  and  great  feeding  capacity.  His  short  legs 
and  blocky  body  indicate  large  gains  on  feed  and  quick  maturity. 

properly  fattened  a  decided  change  takes  place;  the  flesh  now 
has  a  mellow,  yet  firm  and  springy  feel,  and  is  no  longer  hard 
and  unyielding.  This  firm,  springy,  and  mellow  condition  in- 
dicates that  the  steer  is  properly  fattened  from  a  market  stand- 
point. When  feeding  for  show  purposes,  the  fattening  proceeds 
further,  and,  if  continued  to  excess,  the  fleshing  becomes  soft 
and  blubbery.  To  the  fingers,  such  an  animal  seems  incased 
in  blubber,  and  when  the  animal  is  slaughtered  this  is  indeed 
found  to  be  true. 


38          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  best  way  to  determine  the  state  of  fatness  of  an  animal 
is  to  use  the  hands  in  the  manner  mentioned  above.  This  can 
be  done  rapidly,  yet  thoroughly,  by  a  vigorous  handling  along 
the  top  and  down  over  the  ribs  and  shoulders.  Other  means  of 
determining  the  condition  consist  of  examinations  of  the  cod, 
hind  flank,  and  tongue-root.  At  these  points  the  fat  tends  to 
accumulate  extensively,  and  they  are,  therefore,  good  indices 
of  condition.  After  castration,  the  scrotum  with  its  content 
of  fat  is  called  the  cod.  Thin  steers  show  very  little  fullness 
of  co.d,  while  fat  ones  have  the  cod  completely  filled  with  fat. 
Thin  animals  also  exhibit  a  very  light  hind  flank.  At  the  begin- 
ning there  may  be  little  more  than  a  fold  of  skin;  when  fat,  this 
part  fills  out  remarkably  full  and  heavy.  By  placing  the  flat  of 
the  hand  beneath  it  and  lifting,  the  quantity  of  fat  in  the  flank 
is  easily  determined.  When  a  fat  steer  walks,  there  is  a  char- 
acteristic roll  or  swell  to  the  flank  as  the  hind  leg  swings  forward. 
This  is  not  noticeable  in  a  thin  animal.  The  thickness  of  the 
tongue-root  may  be  determined  by  grasping  the  part  with  the 
thumb  and  fingers. 

Some  individuals  fatten  smoothly,  with  no  special  ten- 
dency to  bunch  the  fat  in  patches  or  rolls  at  certain  points, 
while  others  become  "roily,"  or  "patchy,"  in  spite  of  all  the 
feeder's  skill.  Patches  and  rolls  are  most  often  found  about 
the  tail-head  and  end  of  the  rump,  along  the  ribs,  and  at  the 
edge  of  the  loin.  The  occurrence  of  these  is  highly  undesirable; 
they  indicate  an  improper  distribution  of  fat,  give  the  animal 
a  rough  appearance,  and,  when  the  animal  is  slaughtered,  the 
carcass  is  discounted,  for  then  the  bunches  of  fat  are  very  evident 
and  the  appearance  is  spoiled.  The  fatter  the  steer  becomes, 
the  greater  is  the  tendency  toward  patchiness,  yet  many  animals 
begin  to  exhibit  this  defect  before  they  are  really  ripe  and  ready 
for  market. 

Style  has  actual  market  value  in  a  fat  steer.  A  stylish 
steer  is  one  that  stands  squarely  on  his  feet,  with  his  back  level, 
head  well  up,  and  eyes  and  ears  attentive  to  what  is  going  on 
about  him.  This  does  not  mean  a  nervous  animal,  but  a  wide- 
awake one,  full  of  life,  and  seemingly  interested  in  the  things 
about  him.  When  he  walks,  he  does  it  easily  and  without 
awkwardness.  Other  things  being  equal,  such  a  steer  will 
attract  buyers  much  more  quickly  than  an  animal  that  slouches 
while  standing,  showing  a  pronounced  dip  in  the  back,  and 
having  an  awkward  stride  when  in  motion.  These  two  animals 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          39 

may  dress  out  equally  high,  and  yield  equally  valuable  carcasses; 
the  difference  is  that  the  first  steer  forces  his  good  points  to  the 
attention  of  the  buyer  and  shows  for  all  he  is  worth,  while  in 
the  case  of  the  second  steer,  the  buyer  is  left  to  discover  the 
animal's  good  points  without  any  assistance  from  the  animal. 
Cattle  with  style  sell  more  readily  and  at  slightly  higher  prices 
than  cattle  without  style. 

Size  and  weight  vary  according  to  age,  sex,  breed,  and  fat- 
ness. Disregarding  breed  differences,  for  this  factor  need  not 
be  considered  here,  the  following  figures  represent  fair  standards 
of  weight  at  different  ages  for  well-fattened  steers: 

At  birth 70  pounds 

6  months 450  pounds 

12  months 850  pounds 

18  months 1100  pounds 

24  months 1300  pounds 

30  months 1475  pounds 

36  months 1600  pounds 

Age  from  the  teeth. — The  ages  of  cattle  may  be  determined 
with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  by  an  examination  of  the  teeth. 
There  are  eight  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw  of  mature  cattle.  There 
are  no  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  but  a  tough  fibrous  pad  instead, 
amply  suited  to  the  grazing  habits  of  cattle.  The  dentition  at 
various  ages  is  as  follows: 

12  months.  All  calf  teeth  in  place. 

15  months.  Center  permanent  incisors  appear. 

18  months.  Center  permanent  incisors  in  wear. 

24  months.  First  intermediates  up. 

30  months.  Six  broad  incisors. 

36  months.  Six  broad  incisors  in  wear. 

39  months.  Corners  up. 

42  months.  Eight  broad  incisors  in  wear. 


CHAPTER  II. 
THE  BEEF  CARCASS. 

Buyers  of  fat  cattle  at  the  large  market  centers  make  their 
bids  according  to  their  estimates  of  the  kind  of  carcasses  the 
animals  will  yield.  These  estimates  are  made  with  considerable 
accuracy  because  the  buyers  have  made  a  study  of  carcasses 
and  the  cuts  which  they  yield.  A  similar  knowledge  of  meats 
is  essential  to  the  beef  producer  in  order  that  he  may  learn  to 
judge  and  value  beef  cattle  correctly. 


Fig.  6.     Knocking  Cattle. 

Slaughtering. — Upon  reaching  the  packing  house,  the  cat- 
tle are  driven  into  knocking  pens  where  they  are  dealt  a  sledge- 
hammer blow  by  the  "knocker"  who  stands  on  a  platform  about 
even  with  the  head  of  the  animal.  They  are  then  rolled  on  the 
dressing  floor,  where  a  shackle  is  placed  about  the  hind  leg.  The 
carcass  is  raised  and  bled,  and  the  head  removed.  Again  floored, 
the  feet  are  removed  at  knees  and  hocks,  and  the  hide  is  stripped. 
The  carcass  is  then  placed  on  a  spreader,  known  as  a  "beef  tree/' 
where  it 'is  disemboweled,  the  hide  removed  entirely,  and  the 
back  split.  An  endless  chain  then  conveys  the  sides  of  beef 
through  a  set  of  washers  to  the  coolers.  The  time  required  for 

40 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          41 

dressing  a  carcass  is  less  than  40  minutes.  The  beef  remains 
in  the  coolers  from  one  to  two  weeks  before  it  is  ready  for  the 
market,  the  temperature  being  kept  at  about  38  degrees  Fahren- 
heit. Prime  meats  require  three  to  four  weeks  ageing  in  a 
refrigerator  to  arrive  at  their  best. 

The  offal. — The  feet,  head,  hide,  internal  organs,  loose  fat, 
blood,  and  contents  of  stomach  and  intestines  are  collectively 
called  the  offal  or  waste  of  the  steer,  so  called  because  formerly, 
with  the  exception  of  the  tongue,  hide,  and  tallow,  this  offal 
was  thrown  away.  Today  all  of  it  is  valuable  for  manufactur- 
ing into  various  by-products.  (See  Chapter  III.) 

The  dressing  percentage. — By  comparing  the  weight  of 
the  chilled  carcass  with  the  live  weight  of  the  animal,  the  per- 
centage of  carcass,  or  what  is  called  the  dressing  percentage, 
is  determined.  This  is  a  very  important  point  in  determining 
the  market  price  of  a  steer,  and  the  buyer  always  estimates 
the  dressing  percentage  when  bidding  on  a  load  of  cattle.  For 
instance,  suppose  we  have  a  steer  of  1,200  pounds  weight  on  foot. 
When  dressed,  the  carcass  weighs  say  720  pounds.  The  dressing 
percentage  would  then  be  60  per  cent.  Now  suppose  we  have 
two  loads  of  25  steers  each.  The  average  live  weight  of  the 
steers  in  each  load  is  1,200  pounds.  When  slaughtered  one  load 
dresses  60  per  cent.,  and  the  other  57 ^  per  cent.  Each  load 
had  a  total  live  weight  of  30,000  pounds.  When  dressed,  one 
load  yields  2>^  per  cent,  higher  than  the  other,  a  difference  of 
750  pounds  of  carcass — a  difference  exceeding  the  weight  of  a 
single  carcass.  The  total  dressed  weight  of  the  25  steers  in  the 
best  load  was  18,000  pounds;  26  steers  of  the  lower  dressing  kind 
would  not  yield  this  weight  of  carcasses  by  60  pounds.  We  will 
suppose  each  lot  of  carcasses  brought  a  wholesale  price  of  $20 
per  cwt.  Then  750  pounds  of  carcass  amounts  to  $150,  which 
is  the  difference  in  the  income  from  the  sale  of  the  two  lots  of 
carcasses.  This  amounts  to  $6  per  head  in  favor  of  the  high 
dressers.  In  handling  thousands  of  animals,  as  do  the  large 
packing  firms,  the  question  of  dressing  percentage  is  a  very 
important  one.  The  range  in  the  dressing  percentages  of  cattle 
is  from  35  to  70  per  cent. 

The  chief  factors  determining  the  dressing  percentage  of 
a  steer,  in  the  order  of  their  importance  are:  (1)  fatness,  (2) 
paunchiness,  and  (3)  quality  of  bone  and  hide.  Aged  dairy 
cows  which  have  outlived  their  usefulness  as  milk  producers 
are  sent  to  market;  they  are  very  paunchy  and  very  thin,  and 


42          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

dress  around  45  per  cent.  Well-bred  steers,  well  fattened  and 
with  straight  lines,  that  is,  free  from  paunchiness,  dress  out  62 
to  65  per  cent.  The  highest  record  known  to  the  writer,  where 
the  steer  was  dressed  in  the  usual  manner,  is  69.9  per  cent.  In 
determining  the  dressing  percentage,  the  refinement  of  head, 
bone,  and  hide  is  of  less  importance  as  a  rule  than  paunchiness 
or  fatness,  although  in  some  animals  the  weight  of  hide  is  a  con- 
siderable item. 

Commission  men  who  sell  cattle  on  the  big  markets  are 
always  careful  that  the  cattle  consigned  to  them  get  plenty  of 
feed  and  water  before  they  are  offered  for  sale.  This  is  called 
the  "fill,"  and  it  is  important  because  it  has  a  quieting  effect  on 
the  cattle,  corrects  the  gaunt  appearance  caused  by  shipping, 
and  adds  weight  to  the  animal.  The  buyer  estimates  the  fill 
in  various  ways,  particularly  by  the  degree  of  paunchiness. 
Hence  the  fill  does  not  constitute  a  fourth  factor  of  the  dressing 
percentage,  but  is  included  under  paunchiness.  On  hot  days 
when  cattle  take  a  heavy  fill  of  water,  buyers  stay  off  the  market 
as  long  as  possible. 

The  census  of  this  country  has  provided  average  live  and 
dressed  weights  of  meat  animals  killed  in  the  wholesale  slaughter- 
ing and  meat-packing  industry,  and  these  averages  are  derived 
from  an  immense  number  of  animals.  The  average  live  weight 
of  cattle  was  1069  pounds  in  1899,  1047  pounds  in  1904,  1019 
pounds  in  1909,  and  989  pounds  in  1914.  The  average  dressed 
weight  was  583  pounds  in  1899,  569  pounds  for  1904,  543 
pounds  for  1909,  and  530  pounds  for  1914.  The  average  dress- 
ing percentage  was,  therefore,  54.5  in  1899,  54.3  in  1904,  53.3 
in  1909,  and  53.6  in  1914.  The  average  live  weight  of  calves 
for  these  four  years  was  141,  167,  168,  and  167  pounds.  The 
average  dressed  weight  was  90,  103,  105,  and  102  pounds.  The 
average  dressing  percentage  was  63.8,  61.7,  62.5,  and  61.1  per 
cent,  respectively.  Calves  dress  a  higher  percentage  than  cattle 
because  the  hide  is  left  on  the  veal  carcass  to  preserve  the  color 
and  moisture  of  the  flesh,  which  dries  out  and  turns  dark  much 
more  rapidly  than  beef  when  exposed  to  the  air. 

The  wholesale  cuts. — When  the  carcass  has  been  sufficiently 
ripened  in  the  cooler,  it  is  ready  for  cutting  up  into  the  whole- 
sale cuts.  The  full  side  of  beef,  half  the  carcass,  has  the  appear- 
ance shown  in  the  following  diagram.  The  wholesale  cuts  are 
indicated  by  the  dotted  lines. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          43 

The  first  step  in  cutting  up  a  side  of  beef  is  to  "quarter" 
or  "rib"  it,  which  means  to  separate  the  side  into  forequarter 
and  hindquarter.  Sides  are  usually  quartered  or  ribbed  between 
the  12th  and  13th  ribs,  leaving  one  rib  on  the  hindquarter. 
Such  a  hindquarter  is  called  a  "regular  hindquarter,"  and  it 
contains  from  47  to  49  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  side,  and 
the  forequarter  contains  from  51  to  53  per  cent.,  the  averages 
being  about  48  per  cent,  hinds  and  52  per  cent,  fores.  Hinds 
are  quoted  about  25  per  cent,  higher  than  fores  in  cold  months, 
and  up  to  40  per  cent,  higher  in  summer.  This  variation  is  due 
to  the  large  amount  of  boiling  and  stewing  pieces  in  the  fores, 
which  meats  are  in  greater  demand  in  winter. 

The  hindquarter  is  divided  into  four  wholesale  cuts — the 
loin,  round,  flank,  and  kidney.  The  kidney  is  not  shown  in 
the  accompanying  diagram,  as  it  lies  under  the  loin. 


Fig.  7.     Wholesale  Cuts  of  Beef. 

1.  Chuck;  2,  shank;  3,  brisket;  4,  rib;  5,  navel;  6,  loin;  7,  flank;  8,  round; 
3  and  5,  plate;  6,  7,  and  8,  hindquarter. 

The  forequarter  yields  five  wholesale  cuts — the  rib,  chuck, 
navel,  brisket,  and  shank.  The  navel  and  brisket  are  usually 
not  divided,  but  are  sold  as  one  cut  called  the  plate. 

The  loin  is  separated  from  the  round  at  the  hip  joint,  which 
is  a  considerable  distance  back  of  the  hip.  Thus  much  of  the 
rump  is  converted  into  loin  when  the  carcass  comes  under  the 
knife  of  the  butcher.  The  shank  is  sawed  off  just  below  the 
shoulder  joint.  The  plate  is  taken  off  on  a  line  extending  from 
about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  rib  through  the  point  at  which 
the  shank  is  removed.  The  rib  and  chuck  are  separated  between 
the  fifth  and  sixth  ribs.  This  gives  five  ribs  to  the  chuck  and 
seven  to  the  rib. 


44 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


A  720-pound  carcass  will  yield  a  360-pound  side.  When 
the  side  is  cut  up,  the  weights  of  the  various  wholesale  cuts, 
their  wholesale  prices  per  pound,  and  their  total  values  are  as 
given  in  the  following  table,  the  figures  for  weights  representing 
averages  for  good  steer  carcasses.  Prices  are  given  for  No.  1, 
No.  2,  and  No.  3  grades. 


Wholesale 

Wts. 
in 

Wts. 
in 

Price 

per  lb., 

cents 

Total 

value  o 

f  cuts 

cuts 

Ibs. 

per 
cent. 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  1 

No.  2 

No.  3 

Round  .... 
Loin 

80 
65 

22 

18 

25 
52 

24 
43 

17 
19 

$  20.00 
33  80 

$19.20 
27  95 

$13.60 
12  35 

Flank  
Rib  

18 
35 

5 
10 

17 
40 

16 

34 

15 

17 

3.06 
14.00 

2.88 
11.90 

2.70 
5.95 

Plate  
Chuck  
Shank  
Kidney  .... 

50 
90 
11 
11 

14 
25 
3 
3 

18H 

21 

ny2 

19 

17 
20 
11 
18 

12 

14^ 
10 

17 

9.25 
18.90 
1.27 
2.09 

8.50 
18.00 
1.21 
1.98 

6.00 
13.05 
1.10 
1.87 

Total  .  .  . 

360 

100 

28.4 

25.5 

15.7 

$102.37 

$91.62 

$56.62 

High-priced  and  low-priced  cuts. — The  average  price  for 
the  entire  No.  1  carcass  is,  then,  28.4  cents  per  pound.  From 
the  foregoing  table  it  is  seen  that  the  loin,  rib,  and  round  con- 
stitute half  of  the  carcass  weight,  but  bring  a  little  more  than 
65  per  cent,  of  the  return  from  the  sale  of  the  wholesale  cuts. 
The  180  pounds  of  loin,  rib,  and  round  have  an  average  price 
of  37.7  cents  per  pound,  while  the  remainder  of  the  side,  also 
weighing  180  pounds,  brings  an  average  of  19.2  cents.  Hence 
the  packer  wants  cattle  as  highly  developed  in  back,  loin,  rump, 
and  round  as  possible.  Buyers  of  cattle  for  slaughter  emphasize 
this  point.  They  want  cattle  smoothly  and  heavily  fleshed  in 
all  parts,  and  especially  in  the  four  parts  mentioned.  The  sell- 
ing price  of  a  load  of  cattle  is  greatly  dependent  on  this  feature. 

Variations  in  carcasses. — A  study  of  the  carcasses  in  any 
cooler  brings  out  striking  differences.  Some  are  large,  being 
from  1,500-  to  1,600-pound  animals;  others  are  from  younger 
beeves  that  weighed  800  to  1,100  pounds.  Some  are  compact 
and  wide,  others  are  long  and  narrow.  Some  are  well  developed 
in  the  regions  of  high-priced  cuts,  while  others  are  deficient  in 
this  respect.  Some  carry  heavy  fleshing,  others  are  very  poorly 
covered  indeed.  The  layer  of  external  fat  is  very  thick  in  some, 
these  being  highly  finished  cattle  fed  on  grain.  Others  show 
practically  no  external  fat.  These  are  from  grass-fed  cattle- 
poor  pasture  too,  for  a  steer  puts  on  some  fat  on  grass  if  the 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          45 

pasture  is  good.  Some  show  a  nice  intermixing  of  fat  and  lean, 
called  "marbling,"  while  others  exhibit  this  feature  very  slightly, 
or  none  at  all.  The  lean  meat  of  some  carcasses  has  a  pale  red 
color;  in  others  it  is  very  dark.  Some  carry  snow-white  fat, 
others  carry  fat  of  a  yellow  color.  Some  beef  is  fine  grained, 
and  some  is  very  coarse  and  fibrous.  Some  carcasses  have  soft 
bones,  somewhat  cartilaginous  in  character;  others  have  hard 
flinty  bones.  Size  of  bones  varies  a  great  deal  in  different 
carcasses. 

To  sum  up  these  differences  we  may  say  that  carcasses 
vary  in  respect  to  (1)  size,  (2)  shape,  (3)  thickness  of  fleshing, 


Fig.  8.— Cuts  of  Beef  Indicated  in  the  Live  Animal. 

(4)  thickness  of  external  fat,  (5)  marbling,  (6)  color  of  lean 
meat,  (7)  color  of  fat,  (8)  grain  of  meat,  (9)  flintiness  of  bones, 
and  (10)  size  of  bones.  The  butcher  or  packer  is  interested  in 
all  these  things,  for  each  is  of  considerable  importance.  The 
packer  grades  the  wholesale  cuts  of  beef,  as  they  vary  in  these 
points,  into  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No.  3  grades.  No.  1  cuts  bring 
the  highest  price,  and  between  No.  1's  and  No.  3's  there  is  a 
marked  difference.  These  three  grades  are  all  used  on  the 
butcher's  block.  Cuts  from  inferior  carcasses  not  suitable  for 
block  use,  are  called  strippers;  these  are  manufactured  into 
boneless  cuts,  barreled  beef,  and  sausage. 


46          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

How  the  carcass  is  produced. — Before  discussing  the  quali- 
fications of  a  good  carcass,  it  will  be  profitable  to  consider  briefly 
how  an  animal  grows  and  builds  up  the  parts  of  its  body  which 
eventually  make  up  the  carcass.  The  carcass  consists  of  bone, 
muscle,  connective  tissue,  and  fat.  At  birth  the  calf  weighs 
about  70  pounds.  Its  bones  are  soft  and  elastic,  and  its  muscles 
are  tender.  It  carries  a  certain  degree  of  fatness,  depending 
on  how  well  it  was  nourished  before  it  was  born — in  other  words, 
on  how  well  its  mother  was  fed.  Up  to  weaning  time  it  subsists 
largely  upon  its  mother's  milk,  which  is  primarily  a  bone  and 
muscle  builder,  producing  growth. 

When  weaned,  the  future  of  the  calf  depends  upon  (1) 
ancestry,  (2)  feed,  and  (3)  management.  If  its  ancestors  were 
dairy  animals,  it  will  never  fatten  properly  nor  make  a  valuable 
carcass.  However,  we  are  dealing  with  beef  production  and 
will  assume  the  calf  is  from  a  good  line  of  beef  cattle.  If  given 
plenty  of  feed  and  good  care,  in  other  words  every  opportunity 
to  develop  quickly,  the  calf  rapidly  increases  in  size  and  its 
flesh  expands  and  thickens.  It  also  lays  on  fat.  It  is  hard  to 
fatten  young  animals  because  they  tend  to  utilize  their  feed  for 
growth  rather  than  fat.  Growth  is  increase  in  bone  and  muscle. 
However,  with  heavy  feeding,  cattle  become  fat  before  reaching 
maturity,  and  may  be  sent  to  market  under  20  months  of  age 
weighing  800  to  1000  pounds.  Such  animals  are  called  "baby 
beeves." 

Another  way  to  handle  the  calf  is  to  turn  it  out  to  pasture 
and  perhaps  help  it  along  with  a  little  grain  if  the  pasture  is 
short.  In  this  case  the  object  is  to  produce  growth  only,  and 
the  animal  may  then  be  finished  as  a  two-year-old.  Under  this 
plan  the  animal  should  be  roughed  through  the  winter  with 
care,  otherwise  it  will  receive  a  setback.  A  third  way  to  manage 
this  calf  would  be  to  put  it  on  pasture  where  it  can  get  grass  if 
there  is  any,  and  get  thin  if  there  isn't — so  thin  that  it  loses  what 
we  may  call  its  baby  flesh.  In  winter,  under  this  system,  the 
animal  starves  along  as  best  it  can,  and  the  result  is  that  it  never 
makes  a  good  beef,  even  though  liberally  fed  at  the  finish.  Once 
the  baby  fleshing  is  lost  through  setbacks  received  during  develop- 
ment, the  steer  does  not  make  as  desirable  a  carcass  as  he  would 
otherwise. 

As  an  animal  increases  in  age,  its  bones  become  hard  and 
flinty.  The  bones  which  bear  the  most  strain  become  most 
flinty,  these  being  the  shank  bones.  In  young  cattle  the  tips 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          47 

of  the  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrae  are  soft  and  cartilag- 
inous. These  "buttons,"  as  they  are  called,  are  present  up  to 
the  age  of  18  months;  thereafter  they  gradually  ossify,  and  at 
about  the  fifth  year  the  spines  are  hard  to  the  tips.  Similar 
changes  take  place  in  the  cartilages  on  the  breastbone  before 
the  third  or  fourth  year.  The  breastbone,  backbone,  ribs,  and 
pelvis  gradually  harden  and  whiten,  especially  after  the  age  of 
18  months.  When  visiting  a  beef  cooler,  the  age  of  the  animals 
from  which  the  carcasses  came  may  be  told  approximately  by 
the  bones.  With  increase  in  age  the  muscles  become  tougher 
through  use.  The  muscles  which  the  animal  uses  most  and 
which  do  the  most  work  become  the  toughest  in  their  make-up; 
these  are  the  muscles  of  the  neck  and  those  used  in  locomotion, 
including  the  muscles  of  the  thigh,  shoulder,  and  arm. 

Wild  animals  store  up  fat  in  their  bodies  as  a  reserve  upon 
which  they  rely  in  times  when  food  is  scanty.  The  bear,  for 
instance,  takes  on  lots  of  fat  during  summer  and  fall,  which  is 
resorbed  and  used  to  support  life  during  hibernation  in  winter; 
he  comes  out  in  the  spring  in  very  thin  condition.  The  storing 
of  fat  is  a  provision  of  nature.  In  the  domestic  animals  which 
produce  meat,  man  has  encouraged  this  fat-storing  tendency 
by  methods  of  breeding  and  feeding.  That  great  success  has 
been  achieved  along  this  line  is  shown  by  the  highly  finished 
cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs  coming  from  the  hands  of  the  best  stock- 
men. The  natural  place  for  the  storing  of  fat  is  along  the  back, 
forming  a  layer  of  clear  fat  just  beneath  the  skin.  It  is  also 
stored  about  the  internal  organs,  between  the  muscles,  and 
within  the  muscles  among  the  muscle  fibers.  This  storing  of 
fat  among  the  muscle  fibers  gives  the  marbled  appearance  already 
referred  to.  Practically  no  fat  is  stored  up  in  the  muscles  which 
do  much  work,  hence  we  find  the  round  steak  coming  from  the 
thigh  to  be  almost  completely  free  from  fat,  being  lean  all  the 
way  across.  The  muscles  of  the  loin  and  back,  having  little 
work  to  do,  take  on  the  marbling  feature  quite  easily  if  the 
animal  is  well  bred  and  properly  handled.  This  largely  explains 
why  cuts  from  the  loin  and  back  are  most  tender,  although  in 
these  muscles  there  is  not  the  stimulus  to  the  growth  of  connec- 
tive tissue  such  as  is  the  case  in  working  muscles,  and  this  is 
undoubtedly  another  reason  why  the  loin  and  back  yield  cuts 
of  superior  tenderness. 


48 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  following  figures  show  the  relative  amounts  of  lean, 
fat,  and  bone  in  the  cuts  from  a  good  carcass,  as  compared  with 
those  from  an  inferior  carcass: 


Name  of  cut 

Good  Carcass 

Inferior  Carcass 

Lean 

Fat 

Bone 

Lean 

Fat 

Bone 

Hind  shank 

per  cent. 
28.1 
72.2 
44.7 
54.8 
46.3 
15.2 
53.9 
61.1 
62.8 
54.3 

per  cent. 
13.5 
17.0 
32.9 
33.3 
53.2 
13.1 
34.3 
21.5 
21.4 
21.9 

per  cent. 
57.8 
9.2 
22.2 
11.1 
0.4 
34.1 
11.5 
17.2 
15.1 
23.6 

per  cent. 
43.8 
82.9 
47.4 
62.4 
49.3 
60.8 
62.8 
66.3 
69.9 
67.9 

per  cent. 
5.0 
8.2 
30.1 
24.9 
9.2 
3.2 
21.5 
14.8 
15.4 
11.7 

per  cent. 
50.0 
8.5 
21.1 
11.9 
0.7 
35.3 
14.7 
18.0 
13.6 
19.4 

Round  

Rump  

Loin  

Flank  . 

Shank  

Plate  
Rib  
Chuck  

Neck  

A  careful  comparison  of  the  figures  for  the  good  carcass 
and  the  inferior  one  shows  that  they  have  about  the  same  per- 
centage of  bone,  but  the  inferior  carcass  shows  a  considerably 
lower  percentage  of  fat  and,  therefore,  a  higher  percentage  of 
lean. 

As  stated  in  the  previous  chapter,  the  feeding  of  mature 
cattle  is  essentially  a  fattening  process.  This  is  clearly  shown 
by  results  at  the  Missouri  Station,*  where  muscle  fibers  and  fat 
cells  extracted  from  steers  at  different  periods  during  the  fatten- 
ing process  were  examined  and  measured  under  the  microscope 
and  it  was  found  that  while  there  was  very  little  or  no  increase 
in  the  diameter  of  the  muscle  fibers,  the  fat  cells  increased  enor- 
mously both  in  number  and  size. 

Thus  we  understand  why  cattle  differ  a  great  deal  in  the 
kind  of  carcasses  they  yield,  depending  upon  their  inherited 
tendencies  and  upon  their  feed  and  care.  The  effects  of  inherited 
tendencies  upon  the  carcass  are  discussed  in  more  detail  in 
Chapter  IV. 

The  demands  of  the  butcher  and  ultimate  consumer. — The 
questions  which  now  come  before  us  are:  1.  What  kinds  of 
lean  meat  and  fat  does  the  butcher  want?  2.  How  much  lean 
meat  does  he  want,  and  how  much  fat?  3.  How  does  he  want 
these  two  substances  arranged  with  regard  to  each  other?  * 


*  Influence  of  Nutrition  upon  the  Animal  Form,  paper  by  Dean  H.  J. 
Waters  at  Thirteenth  Meeting  of  Society  for  Promotion  of  Agricultural 
Science. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          49 

These  questions  bring  up  the  demands  of  consumers  of 
meats,  for  the  butcher  is  guided  by  what  the  consumer  of  beef 
wants  and  will  pay  for.  You  and  I  are  consumers  of  meat,  and 
what  we  like,  or  dislike,  together  with  the  size  of  our  pocket- 
book,  guides  the  butcher  who  buys  our  cattle.  Now  what  do 
we  want?  We  want  meat  that  is  (1)  nutritious,  (2)  tender, 
(3)  juicy,  (4)  of  good  flavor,  (5)  attractive  in  appearance,  and 
(6)  has  a  small  amount  of  outside  fat.  Provided  beef  is  well 
ripened  in  the  cooler  and  well  cooked,  there  is  not  much  varia- 
tion in  its  nutritive  or  food  value.  The  tenderness  depends 
upon  the  work  the  muscle  has  done  and  upon  the  amount  of 
marbling  it  carries.  It  is  impossible  to  get  too  much  marbling, 
the  more  the  better.  Meat  free  from  fat  shrivels  and  drys  up 
when  roasted,  becoming  dry  and  tough.  Ageing  or  ripening 
in  the  cooler  helps  to  make  meat  tender.  Juiciness  results  from 
the  presence  of  fat  and  manner  of  cooking.  The  flavor  depends 
mostly  upon  fatness  and  upon  proper  ripening  of  the  carcass. 
The  cuts  of  beef  which  are  most  attractive  in  appearance  are 
those  with  bright,  rich,  red  lean,  snow-white  fat,  and  a  high 
degree  of  marbling.  The  consumer  desires  a  maximum  of  lean 
meat  well  marbled,  and  a  minimum  of  bone  and  outside  fat 
in  the  cuts  of  beef. 

All  carcasses  not  suitable  for  side  beef. — Carcass  beef 
which  is  thick  and  fat  enough  so  that  the  entire  side  can  be 
sold  over  the  butcher's  block  in  retail  cuts  is  known  as  "block 
beef"  or  "side  beef."  Carcasses  that  are  not  thick  enough  in 
flesh  to  be  entirely  utilized  by  the  retailer  are  called  "cutters." 
The  loins  and  ribs  of  cutters  may  be  sold  over  the  block.  "Can- 
ners"  are  the  worst  carcasses  to  be  found,  from  which  none  of 
the  regular  wholesale  cuts  may  be  sold  over  the  block,  but  which 
must  be  disposed  of  as  boneless  fresh  meats  and  cured  beef 
products.  In  this  chapter  our  attention  is  confined  to  side 
beef  and  to  a  study  of  the  qualifications  of  a  good  carcass. 

1.  Weight  of  carcass. — The  heaviest  carcasses  seldom 
exceed  1,050  pounds,  and  the  minimum  is  about  250  pounds. 
Sufficient  finish  and  quality  are  not  often  found  in  carcasses 
weighing  less  than  800  pounds.  No  definite  line  as  to  weight 
can  be  drawn  between  carcasses  of  beef  and  veal,  because  there 
are  many  factors  determining  the  character  of  the  flesh.  The 
greatest  demand  is  for  carcasses  from  1,200-  to  1,400-pound 
steers,  and  most  of  the  cattle  coming  to  market  are  of  about 
these  weights.  Such  carcasses  yield  retail  cuts  of  a  size  to 


50          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

suit  the  average  family.  There  is  also  a  demand  for  heavy 
carcasses  to  supply  hotels,  restaurants,  and  dining  cars,  which 
use  large  cuts. 

2.  Shape  of  carcass. — The  ideal  carcass  of  beef  is  com- 
pact and  has  good  width  in  proportion  to  length,  short  shanks 
and  neck,  and  full  rounds,  loins,  and  ribs.    Large  plates,  hollow 
loins,  prominent  hips,  thin  chucks,  or  rangy,  loosely  coupled  sides 
are  especially  discriminated  against. 

3.  Thickness   of  fleshing. — There  is   a  clear  distinction 
between  thickness  due  to  fatness  and  thickness  due  to  mus- 
cular flesh.    Only  the  knife  can  completely  reveal  the  thickness 
of  a  side  and  the  relative  thickness  of  fat  and  lean;  even  expert 
dealers  are  often  mistaken  as  to  the  actual  thickness  of  flesh 
in  an  uncut  side. 


Fig.  9.     Beef  Ribs. 

The  rib  cut  on  the  left  is  too  fat,  the  one  on  the  right  too  lean,  and  the 
cut  in  the  center  is  correctly  fattened.  Note  that  the  amount  of  lean  meat 
is  practically  the  same  in  all  three. 

4.  Thickness  of  external  fat. — This  is  referred  to  as  the 
"finish."  Perfect  finish  consists  of  a  smooth  covering  of  firm 
white  fat  over  the  entire  carcass,  with  the  greatest  depth  along 
the  back,  a  white  brittle  "kidney"  of  medium  size,  and  a  lining 
of  flaky  fat  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  ribs.  The  rounds  and 
shanks  are  covered  last  in  the  process  of  fattening.  Carcasses 
show  variation  in  thickness  of  external  fat,  ranging  all  the  way 
from  zero  to  four  inches.  Beef  fat  is  not  palatable  to  most 
people.  The  average  consumer  does  not  want  more  than  one- 
half  or  three-fourths  of  an  inch  of  external  fat,  and  if  the  carcass 
weighs  500  pounds  or  less,  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  is  sufficient. 
It  is  impossible  to  secure  proper  marbling  unless  a  certain  amount 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          51 

of  fat  is  put  on  externally  at  the  same  time,  but  the  necessary 
marbling  is  usually  secured  when  one-half  or  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  of  fat  is  laid  on  externally;  after  this  point  is  reached, 
the  fat  is  largely  stored  externally,  between  the  muscles,  and 
about  the  internal  organs.  A  certain  amount  of  outside  fat  is 
necessary  in  prime  beef  in  order  to  insure  proper  ripening  in  the 
cooler,  and  also  for  proper  roasting.  In  the  lowest  grade,  such 
as  canners,  outside  fat  is  entirely  lacking  and  such  carcasses  will 
rot  before  they  ripen.  A  carcass  carrying  soft,  "gobby"  fat 
sells  at  a  discount.  Grass-fed  cattle  often  yield  carcasses  that 
are  watery  and  flabby,  with  a  marked  lack  of  finish.  Heifers 


Fig.  10.     Well-Marbled  Beef. 

Rib  roast  showing  correct  proportion  of  fat  to  lean,  and  a  high  degree 
of  marbling. 

carry  a  higher  percentage  of  fat  in  all  cuts  than  do  steers.  This 
is  one  of  the  principal  reasons  why  they  often  sell  at  a  discount 
in  this  country  while  in  England  they  are  not  discriminated 
against  because  the  Englishman  likes  fatter  beef. 

Cattle  fed  to  a  complete  finish,  as  are  the  beef  cattle  ex- 
hibited at  the  larger  live-stock  shows,  carry  a  great  excess  of 
external  fat — far  too  much  to  suit  the  average  consumer.  This 
excess  of  tallow  adds  practically  nothing  to  the  value  of  the 
carcass  as  food.  In  a  way,  the  fat-stock  shows  set  a  wrong 
example  for  feeders  to  follow.  Such  a  finish  results  from  a  long 


52          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

feeding  period  of  8  to  10  months,  and  in  some  cases  even  longer. 
A  3  to  6  months  feeding  period  gives  a  carcass  which  suits  the 
consumer  better,  and  such  a  plan  is  undoubtedly  more  profitable 
to  the  feeder,  because  the  first  gains  a  steer  makes  are  acquired 
much  more  cheaply  than  the  last  ones.  This  does  not  mean 
that  the  farmer  should  send  thin  cattle  to  market;  it  means  there 
is  a  place  to  stop  in  the  feeding  of  a  bullock  which  results  in 
greatest  profit  to  the  producer  and  best  satisfaction  to  the  con- 
sumer. A  smooth  and  firmly  finished  steer  is  the  sort  this 
implies.  As  bearing  on  the  matter  of  cost  of  gains,  the  Kansas 
Station*  found  the  grain  required  for  100  pounds  of  gain  with 
fattening  steers  for  different  periods  to  be  as  follows: 

Grain  for  Increase  of 

100  Ibs.  gain  feed  required 

Up  to    56  days 730  pounds  of  grain. 

Up  to    84  days 807  pounds  of  grain.  10  per  cent. 

Up  to  112  days 840  pounds  of  grain.  15  per  cent. 

Up  to  140  days 901  pounds  of  grain.  23  per  cent. 

Up  to  168  days 927  pounds  of  grain.  27  per  cent. 

Up  to  182  days 1000  pounds  of  grain.  37  per  cent. 

These  figures  indicate  the  heavy  cost  of  thoroughly  fat- 
tening a  steer,  and  the  importance  of  selling  as  early  as  possible. 

5.  Marbling. — The  highest  quality  of  beef  is  that  which 
contains  the  largest  proportion  of  well-marbled  lean. 

6.  Color   of   lean    meat. — The   meat   from   grass-finished 
cattle  is  often  dark  in  color.    Grain  feeding  gives  the  best  color — 
a  bright,  rich  red.    Dark  color  is  due  to  the  presence  of  much 
blood  in  the  tissues.    Anything  which  causes  the  blood  to  flow 
into  the  tissues  in  large  quantities  results  in  dark  color.    Exer- 
cise or  excitement  will  bring  about  this  condition,  hence  the 
dark-colored  flesh  of  western  range  cattle,  and  of  grass-fed  cattle 
in  general,  is  not  due  to  the  nature  of  the  food,  but  to  the  amount 
of  exercise  made  necessary  in  ranging  about  at  pasture.    Stags 
and  bulls  kill  out  dark  because  of  their  restlessness,  and  of  heifers 
in  heat  the  same  is  true.    Dark  carcasses  break  down  (decom- 
pose) quicker  than  light-colored  ones,  and  consumers  object  to 
the  appearance,  hence  butchers  have  two  good  reasons  for  dis- 
liking a  dark-colored  carcass. 

7.  Color  of  fat. — A  clear  white  color  of  fat  is  desired.    An 
unattractive  yellow  color  is  rather  frequently  met  with.    Some 
packers  believe  the  yellow  color  is  due  to  the  kind  of  feed  upon 


*  Kan.  Bui.  34. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          53 

which  the  animal  was  fattened.  Cottonseed  meal  has  been 
charged  with  this  fault,  but  experimental  work  has  shown  that 
cottonseed  meal  does  not  produce  yellow  fat.  Cattle  of  Jersey 
and  Guernsey  breeding  usually  kill  very  yellow. 

8.  Grain  of  meat. — When  the  fresh-cut  surface  is  viewed, 
it  should  show  a  smooth,  fine-grained  appearance,  and  should 
feel  "velvety"  to  the  touch.     Meat  with  fine  grain  comes  from 
the  animal  with  quality,  that  is,  one  with  fine  hide,  hair,  and 
bone.     Such  an  animal  is  finely  textured  throughout,  and  if 
well  fed,  so  that  the  baby  fleshing  is  preserved,  a  carcass  with 
fine-grained    flesh    will    result.     Some   meats   are   very   coarse 
indeed. 

9.  Size  of  bones. — The  bones  should  be  as  small  as  the 
weight  of  the  carcass  will  allow.     From  the  producer's  stand- 
point, however,  such  carcasses  do  not  always  represent  great- 
est profits,  because  extremely  fine-boned  cattle  do  not  usually 
make  the  greatest  gains  on  feed. 

10.  Flintiness  of  bones. — As  already  shown,  flintiness  of 
the  bones  is  an  indication  of  age.     The  most  desirable  carcasses 
are  those  of  young  animals  approaching  maturity,  the  meat  from 
old  ones  being  tough,  dark-colored,  and  lacking  in  marbling. 
The  bones  of  cows  and  heifers,  and  of  dairy-bred  animals,  turn 
hard  and  white  earlier  than  those  of  steers,  indicating  quicker 
maturity. 

Grading  carcasses. — As  to  the  relative  importance  of  the 
above  factors  in  grading  carcass  beef,  it  may  be  said  that  finish 
(by  which  is  meant  the  thickness  and  smoothness  of  outside  fat) 
is  particularly  essential,  with  thickness  of  flesh,  fineness  of  grain, 
color  of  lean  and  fat,  fineness  of  bone,  and  shape  of  carcass  of 
about  equal  importance.  From  what  has  been  said  we  now 
understand  why  the  loin  and  rib  bring  such  high  prices  as  com- 
pared to  other  parts  of  the  carcass;  it  is  because  of  their  superior 
tenderness,  marbling,  and  palatability,  combined  with  attrac- 
tive appearance.  The  round  brings  a  good  price  because  it 
contains  so  much  lean  and  so  little  bone  and  external  fat.  Other 
parts  of  the  carcass  are  as  nutritious  as  the  loin,  rib,  and  round, 
but  are  difficult  to  cook  in  such  a  way  that  they  appeal  to  us  as 
do  the  porterhouse,  sirloin,  and  rib  roast.  But  a  carcass  will 
yield  only  so  much  of  these,  hence  the  great  variation  in  the 
price  of  the  various  wholesale  cuts.  It  is  perhaps  well  that 
there  are  cheap  cuts  of  meat  and  cheap  carcasses,  for  there  is  a 
great  percentage  of  population  not  able  to  buy  any  other  kind. 


54          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  packer  does  not  want  all  beef  to  be  of  highest  quality.  He 
must  take  care  of  the  second-  and  third-class  trade  as  well  as 
the  fancy  trade.  But  the  producer  of  market  cattle  must  aim 
to  produce  the  highest  quality  of  product,  for  this  work  requires 
skill,  and  skill  always  commands  a  higher  reward  than  unskilled 
effort.  Anybody  can  produce  medium  or  inferior  beef,  and 
the  price  obtained  is  in  proportion. 

Sex  differences. — Steer  carcasses  are  identified  by  the  cod 
fat  and  generally  by  their  full,  fleshy  rounds  and  loins,  heavier, 
coarser  bones,  and  short  necks  as  compared  with  cows.  They 
show  more  quality  and  finish  than  any  other  class,  and  are  sold 
as  carcass  beef  more  extensively  than  any  other  class,  except 
heifers.  Heifer  carcasses  are  distinguished  by  the  udder,  and 
usually  they  have  smaller  bones,  more  prominent  hips,  more 
angular  rumps,  less  development  of  lean  meat,  and  they  average 
lighter  in  weight.  The  tendency  in  heifer  beef  is  to  carry  the 
fat  more  extensively  as  kidney  suet  or  gobby  fat  than  do  steers. 
They  have  flatter  loins,  flatter  plates,  and  longer,  thinner  necks 
than  steers.  Carcasses  of  cows  have  the  bag  trimmed  off  as 
closely  as  possible.  The  form  is  angular,  the  neck  long,  the 
bones  hard  and  white,  and  the  majority  lack  thickness  of  flesh. 
Fat  cow  carcasses  often  carry  an  excess  of  kidney  fat  and  bunches 
of  fat  on  the  back  and  rump.  The  flesh  is  seldom  as  well  marbled 
as  that  of  heifers  or  steers.  Cow  carcasses  require  more  ageing 
or  ripening  to  make  the  meat  tender.  Dressed  bulls  are  easily 
recognized  by  the  heavy  neck  and  heavy  shoulders,  thick  rounds, 
dark  color,  coarse-grained  flesh,  and  absence  of  cod  fat.  They 
have  rough  shape  and  the  bones  show  maturity.  The  coarse 
dark  flesh  has  no  marbling  as  a  rule,  and  but  few  bulls  are  suit- 
able for  dressed  beef.  They  are  used  for  sausage  and  the  rounds 
are  made  into  smoked  beef  hams.  Many  stags  approach  steers 
in  form,  quality,  and  finish;  others  resemble  bulls. 

Carcass  classes  and  grades. — All  carcasses  of  cattle  are 
classified  and  graded  as  follows: 

Classes  Grades 

Steers Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common 

Heifers . Prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common 

Cows Choice,  good,  medium,  common 

Bulls  and  stags Choice,  good,  medium,  common 

Cutters Good,  medium,  common 

Canners Good,  medium,  common 

Veal  calves Choice,  good,  medium,  common 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          55 

The  following  wholesale  prices*  indicate  the  comparative 
values  of  those  of  the  above  classes  which  are  suitable  for  block 
beef: 

Steer  carcasses 350  to  700  Ibs 20%  to  29%  cents  per  Ib. 

Heifer  carcasses 400  to  600  Ibs 22%  to  28%  cents  per  Ib. 

Cow  carcasses 250  to  500  Ibs 18%  to  22%  cents  per  Ib. 

Bull  carcasses 400  to  600  Ibs.  and  up .17%  to  17%  cents  per  Ib. 

Veal  carcasses 50  to  275  Ibs.,  hides  on 17%  to  28%  cents  per  Ib. 

Conclusions. — The  study  of  the  beef  carcass  therefore 
teaches: 

1.  That   well-bred   cattle   yield   the   best   carcasses   and 
bring  the  highest  price. 

2.  The  market  wants  young,  highly  finished  cattle. 

3.  Steers  yield  the  most  desirable  carcasses. 

4.  The  best  results  come  from  a  method  of  management 
which  offers  no  chance  for  a  setback  during  growth  and  fat- 
tening. 

5.  The  breeder  and  feeder  of  beef  cattle  should  secure  as 
high  development  of  loin,  back,  and  hindquarter  as  possible. 

6.  To  bring  a  good  price,  cattle  must  dress  high. 

7.  To  dress  high,  cattle  must  be  free  from  paunchiness 
and  must  be  fat. 

8.  Broadly  speaking,   heredity  regulates  the  lean  meat, 
and  man  regulates  the  fat. 

9.  The  feeding  of  mature  cattle  is  almost  entirely  a  fat- 
tening process. 

10.  Fatness  is  desirable  because  it  adds  weight,   makes 
perfect  ripening  possible,  gives  tenderness  and  juiciness  to  the 
meat,  and  increases  the  dressing  percentage. 

11.  Cattle  may  be  made  too  fat. 

12.  Carcasses   vary   widely   in   weight,    shape,    thickness 
of  fleshing,  thickness  of  external  fat,  marbling,  color  of  lean, 
color  of  fat,  grain  of  meat,  and  size  and  hardness  of  bones. 

13.  Ancestry,   age,   sex,   feed,   and   care  determine  what 
sort  of  a  carcass  an  animal  will  yield. 

14.  Half  of  the  carcass  meets  with  strong  demand  and 
sells  high,  while  the  remainder  sells  low. 

15.  There  is  demand  for  carcasses  of  all  weights,   but 
the  strongest  demand  is  for  handy-weight  carcasses  from  cattle 
weighing  1,200  to  1,400  pounds. 


Wholesale  price  list  of  a  leading  Chicago  packer,  March,  1919. 


56          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

16.  To  secure  the  greatest  returns,  the  feeder  should  send 
his  cattle  to  market  well  done  after  a  short  feeding  period,  but 
not  in  an  excessively  fat  condition  resulting  from  long  continued 
feeding. 


CHAPTER  III. 
PACKING  HOUSE  BY-PRODUCTS  FROM  CATTLE. 

When  slaughtered,  the  average  steer  yields  over  40  per 
cent,  of  offal.  In  the  early  days  of  the  packing  industry  the 
only  by-products  of  a  beef  animal  which  received  attention 
from  packers  were  hide,  tallow,  and  tongue.  The  remainder 
of  the  offal  was  either  thrown  away  or  sold  for  almost  nothing. 
In  some  instances,  packers  even  paid  for  the  carting  away  of 
offal.  In  a  short  time  glue  works,  fertilizer  works,  soap  fac- 
tories, oil  and  tallow  factories  sprang  up  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  packing  plants  and  grew  to  be  large  industries.  Soon  the 
packing  plants  went  into  the  soap  business  for  themselves, 
then  into  the  glue  business,  the  fertilizer  business,  and  so  on, 
until  today  packing  house  by-products  are  numbered  by  the  score 
from  what  was  formerly  mere  waste.  The  modern  packing 
house  is  living  and  depending  for  profits  on  what  the  packing 
industry  of  a  quarter  century  ago  was  throwing  away.  The 
utilization  of  by-products  is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  pack- 
ers are  able  to  compete  so  successfully  with  the  local  butchers 
of  the  country.  Were  it  not  for  this  conversion  of  waste  ma- 
terial into  saleable  form,  the  cost  of  beef  would  be  considerably 
higher  than  under  existing  conditions. 

The  most  important  of  all  the  by-products  of  the  animal 
is  the  hide.  Cattle  hides  have  increased  in  value  enormously 
in  the  last  few  years.  In  1904,  the  average  price  for  packer 
hides  was  $10.63  per  cwt.  In  1918,  the  average  price  was  $24.77 
per  cwt.  The  average  cattle  hide,  which  weighs  about  75  pounds, 
therefore  brought  $18.57  in  1918.  Next  in  value  to  the  hide 
stand  the  fats  derived  from  the  abdominal  region.  The  fats 
of  the  steer  bear  the  general  name  of  "tallow."  Out  of  the 
finer  and  better  of  these  fats,  those  which  may  be  readily  de- 
tached by  cutting  and  pulling,  is  made  oleomargarine  or  butterine. 
This  food  product  appeared  in  1866  and  has  since  come  into 
extensive  use.  The  "butter  fats"  average  in  weight  from  60 
to  75  pounds  to  the  animal.  One  Chicago  plant  has  a  capacity 
of  fifteen  tons  of  oleomargarine  a  day,  and  in  a  year  this  concern 
has  put  out  between  eight  and  nine  million  pounds.  The 
production  of  oleomargarine  in  the  United  States  has  increased 

57 


58          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

from  about  50  million  pounds  in  1905,  to  138  million  pounds 
in  1910,  177  million  pounds  in  1916,  298  million  pounds  in  1917, 
and  377  million  pounds  in  1918.  The  marked  increases  in  the 
last  two  years  were  due  to  the  scarcity  and  high  price  of  butter. 
The  per  capita  consumption  increased  from  a  little  over  half  a 
pound  in  1905  to  over  3>£  pounds  in  1918.  After  all  the  oleo 
has  been  squeezed  from  beef  suet,  there  comes  another  valuable 
by-product — stearin — largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  chew- 
ing gum. 

Lean  meat  trimmings  are  made  into  sausage.  Hair  sells 
at  a  good  figure  for  use  in  plastering  and  for  other  purposes. 
The  horns,  at  one  time  considered  a  rubbish  nuisance,  are  now 
sold  from  the  packing  house  at  $100  to  $200  per  ton.  The  same 
is  true  of  hoofs,  which  bring  $40  to  $85  per  ton.  Hoofs  and 
horns  are  manufactured  into  combs,  knife,  cane,  and  umbrella 
handles,  buttons,  and  many  other  articles.  Dried  blood  sells 
for  blood  meal  at  $90  per  ton.  Fibrous  matter  and  scraps, 
after  all  the  grease  has  been  extracted,  are  ground  to  tankage 
and  sold  at  $70  to  $90  per  ton.  From  all  bone  and  cartilage 
the  basic  substance  is  extracted  from  which  glue  is  made.  Fully 
18  per  cent,  of  dry  bones  is  glue,  the  rest  is  ground  to  fertilizer, 
worth  $35  per  ton.  One  Chicago  packing  plant  turns  out 
8,000,000  pounds  of  glue  annually.  From  the  intestines  are 
made  sausage  casings,  brewer's  hose,  and  snuff  packages,  while 
the  bladder  yields  packages  for  putty,  snuff,  and  lard.  The 
tail  furnishes  hair  for  mattresses  and  upholstering,  and  the  bone 
and  meat  are  used  for  making  ox-tail  soup.  Shank  bones  are 
worth  from  $65  to  $85  per  ton,  and  are  cut  into  buttons,  tooth- 
brush handles,  and  other  articles.  The  same  use  is  made  of 
long  thigh  bones,  worth  $150  per  ton.  The  tongue,  cheek, 
tripe,  brains,  heart,  liver,  and  sweetbreads  are  sold  for  food. 
Tripe  is  pickled  stomachs.  Sweetbreads  are  the  thymus  and 
pancreatic  glands.  The  contents  of  the  stomach  are  burned 
under  packing  house  boilers  and  the  ashes  are  used  for  fertilizer. 
Nothing  is  wasted  but  the  water  in  the  carcass. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


59 


A  Chicago  packer  has  computed  from  numerous  tests  the 
following  percentages  of  yields  from  a  steer: 


Pounds 

Live  weight 1200 

Carcass 700 

Hide 75 

Head,  feet,  knees 45 

Butter  fat 80 

Liver 12 

Heart 3 

Lungs 20 

Tongue 5 

Cheek  meat 5 

Rough  tallow  and  entrails 84 

Liquid  blood 46 

Paunch  and  contents 106 

Lips  and  weasand  meat 4 

Tail,  bungs,  and  casings 15 


Per  cent,  of 
live  weight 


58.3 
6.2 
3.7 
6.6 
1.0 
0.25 
1.6 
0.41 
0.41 
7.0 
3.8 
8.8 
0.3 
1.2 


.57 


The  following  table,  giving  the  weights  of  the  offal  of  steers, 
was  compiled  from  slaughter  tests  conducted  by  the  Iowa  Ex- 
periment Station: 


Products  of  dress- 
ing steers 

Here- 
ford 

Here- 
ford 

Angus 

Angus 

Hoi- 
stein 

Hoi- 
stein 

Jersey 

Jersey 

Hide  

Lbs. 
90. 
24. 
24. 
28. 
11. 
4. 
4. 
28. 
16. 
22.5 
3.5 

6. 
13. 

151. 

78.5 
792. 

Lbs. 
102.5 
23.5 
26. 
22. 
7.5 
4. 
5. 
25. 
17. 
17. 
6. 

8. 
18. 

132. 

66. 

111. 

Lbs. 
80. 
23. 
11. 
19. 
6. 
2. 
1.5 
25.5 
19. 
16. 
2.5 

6.5 
10. 

115.5 

54. 
812. 

Lbs. 
62.5 
22.5 
18. 
21.5 
8. 
3.5 
2.5 
20.5 
10.5 
20. 
3. 

7.5 
12. 

101.5 

52. 

680. 

Lbs. 
83. 
14. 
12.5 
17.5 
7.5 
4.5 
2.5 
25. 
17. 
19. 
3.5 

11. 
11.5 

133. 

50.5 

773. 

Lbs. 
61. 
11.5 
10. 
15. 
3. 
3.5 
2.5 
23.5 
15. 
16. 
1.5 

8.5 
11. 

125. 

63.5 
602. 

Lbs. 
66. 
25. 
20. 
53.5 
18. 
4. 
3.5 
24.5 
8.5 
16. 
4.5 

10. 
11. 

129.5 

76. 
592. 

Lbs. 
77. 
41.5 
21.5 
36. 
11.5 
4. 
3.5 
28. 
15. 
11. 
4. 

10. 
15.5 

133. 

79.5 
636. 

Caul  fat  

Paunch  fat  

Intestine  fat  
Heart  and  lung  fat 
Tongue    .  .  . 

Tongue  trimmings  . 
Head  

Feet  

Tripe  

Heart  

Lungs  and  wind- 
.  Pipe  
Liver   .  . 

Paunch  and  con- 
tents 

Intestines  and  con- 
tents . 

Beef 

Total 

1295.5 

1256.5 

1203.5 

1045.5 

1185.0 

972.5 

1062.0 

1127.0 

Live  weight  .  .  . 

1338. 

1320. 

1324. 

1142. 

1316. 

1090. 

1100. 

1182. 

Difference,  in- 
cluding blood 
and  shrink  .... 

42.5 

63.5 

120.5 

96.5 

131. 

117.5 

138. 

55. 

60          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

A  carload  containing  eighteen  prime  and  uniform  Aberdeen- 
Angus  steers,  bred  and  fed  by  the  owner  in  Henry  County, 
Illinois,  were  sold  at  the  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  August 
26,  1914.*  They  were  reshipped  to  New  York  City  on  the 
same  date,  where  they  were  slaughtered  August  30,  1914.  They 
had  been  calved  in  the  spring  of  1912,  suckled  their  dams  on 
pasture  until  weaning  time,  and  received  grain  and  hay  through 
the  following  winter.  The  next  summer  they  ran  on  pasture 
and  were  then  fed  clover  and  alfalfa  hay  until  January  15,  1914. 
One-half  corn  ration  was  fed  the  steers  until  March  1,  when  a 
full  feed  of  corn  with  alfalfa  hay  was  given  in  the  dry  lot  until 
marketing. 

It  is  of  interest  to  know  the  story  of  these  steers  in  detail 
as  they  passed  through  the  market  and  through  the  hands  of 
the  packer,  and  to  know  the  weights  and  values  of  the  numerous 
products  secured  from  their  slaughter.  The  following  table, 
giving  the  figures  for  a  single  steer  representing  an  average  of 
the  18  head,  tells  the  story: 

Marketing. 

Live  weight  at  Chicago,  pounds 1483 

Selling  price  per  cwt $10 . 65 

Price  per  head 157. 94 

Marketing  expenses — 

Freight  and  terminal  switching $1.86 

Yardage 25 

Feed  and  insurance 08 

Commission 66 

$2.85 


Proceeds  to  producer .  .$155. 09 

Slaughtering  and  Wholesaling. 

Cost  of  live  steer  to  packer $157. 94 

Freight,  bedding,  and  feed  to  New  York  City 4 . 50 

Gross  cost  of  steer  at  New  York $162 .44 

Live  weight  at  New  York,  pounds 1367 

Shrinkage  in  shipment,  Chicago  to  New  York,  pounds 116 

Shrinkage  in  shipment,  Chicago  to  New  York,  percentage ....       7.8 

Chilled  carcass  weight,  pounds 899 . 4 

Dressing  percentage 65. 8 

Proceeds  to  Packer. 

Dressed  beef,  899.4  Ibs.,  average  16.86c.  -  $151 .64 

Hide,  88.8  Ibs.,  average  15.82c 14.06 

Oleo  fat,  101.1  Ibs.,  average  8.05c 8.13 

Offal,  as  per  following  items 5. 60 

*  Compiled  from  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Report  113,   Meat  Situation  in  the 
United  States,  by  Hall,  Simpson,  and  Doty. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          61 

Offal                      Wt.  in  Ibs.        Price  Value 

Liver                          12.47         12c  per  Ib.  $1.50 

Heart                           4.28          6c  per  Ib.  .26 

Tail                            lOc  each  .  10 

Tongue                      10.50         lOc  per  Ib.  1.05 

Brains                        8c  each  .08 

Sweetbreads                  .39         30c  per  Ib.  .12 

Melts                          6c  each  .  06 

Lungs                        5c  per  set  .  05 

Raw  tripe                 22.00         l^cperlb.  .33 

Switch                        3c  each  .  03 

Cheek  meat                5.33        93^c  per  Ib.  .51 

Head  meat                  1.17        SlAc  per  Ib.  .10 

Ox  lips                           .51           5c  per  Ib.  .  03 

Skull  bones               13.00         $20  per  ton  .13 

Feet                          19.11        $27  per  ton  .26 

Heart  cap                     .43        33^cperlb.  .02 

Blood,  estimated        8.00        $40  per  ton  .16 

Tankage                      4.00        $20  per  ton  .04 

Tallow                        5.00        53^cperlb.  .28 

$5.11 
Less  expense  selling  small  offal, 

46  Ibs.,  at  75c  per  cwt 35 


Green  value  edible  offal  .....................  .'  .  .  $4.76 

Casings  — 

Rounds,  at  22c  per  set  ....................  $  .22 

Middles,  at  72c  per  set  ....................  72 

Bungs,  at  22c  per  set  ......................  22 

Weasands,  at  6c  per  set  ....................  06 

Bladder,  at  3^c  per  set  ...................  04 


$1.26 
Less  expense,  42c  per  set  ...................  42 


Green  value  casings $  .84 

Total  value  of  offal $5.60 

Total  proceeds  to  packer $179 .43 

Gross  margin  to  packer $16 . 99 

Retailing. 

Cost  of  beef  to  retailer $151.64 

Proceeds  of  beef  at  retail 172. 76 

Gross  margin  to  retailer $  21 . 12 

It  would  seem  that  the  packer  is  now  doing  his  share  in 
supplying  the  people  with  good  meat  at  a  fair  price.  There 
can  be  no  further  expansion  in  the  line  of  getting  more  product 
out  of  the  animal,  the  limit  in  that  direction  having  been  reached. 
Further  improvement  in  the  quality  and  cheapening  of  the 
price  of  beef  rests  largely  with  the  grower  or  producer  of  live 
stock.  Much  may  be  done  on  the  production  side  of  the  business 
to  bring  about  these  results.  More  feed  must  be  grown  per  acre, 


62          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

feeding  must  be  done  more  economically,  and  better  animals 
must  be  bred  and  fed  for  the  market  in  order  that  greater  returns 
may  be  secured  for  the  feed  consumed.  The  scrub  animal 
must  be  eliminated  through  the  multiplication  in  numbers  and 
extension  of  territory  of  the  improved  breeds  of  cattle.  Thus 
more  good  purebred  sires  will  be  made  available  for  grading  up 
the  common  cattle  of  the  country,  and  meats  of  better  quality 
will  be  produced  at  lower  cost. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
THE  VALUE  OF  TYPE  IN  BEEF  MAKING. 

In  order  to  determine  just  what  advantages  are  possessed 
by  the  beef-type  steer  as  compared  with  dairy-type  steers, 
some  experiments  have  been  carried  out  which  have  resulted 
in  interesting  findings.  It  has  long  been  known  that  beef  steers 
suit  feeders  and  butchers  better  than  steers  of  dairy  breeding. 
It  has  been  claimed  that  beef  steers  gain  faster  in  proportion 


Fig.  11.     Dairy-Type  Steer. 

Jersey  steer  in  the  Iowa  experiment  at  end  of  feeding  period.     Note  the 
slack  crops  and  fore-rib,  paunchiness,  and  lack  of  muscling  in  this  steer. 

to  feed  consumed,  that  they  fatten  more  readily,  dress  out 
higher,  yield  a  more  valuable  carcass,  and  hence  bring  a  higher 
price  on  the  market.  Experimental  results  have  upheld  some 
of  these  views  and  disproved  others. 

In  1903,  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station*  conducted  a  series 
of  experiments  dealing  with  the  comparative  merits  of  the  two 
types  for  beef  production.  The  object  was  to  provide  answers 


*  la.  Bui.  20. 


63 


64          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

to  the  following  questions:  1.  Which  type  of  steer  makes  the 
greater  gains  from  pounds  of  feed  consumed?  2.  In  the  gains 
made,  what  differences  exist  between  the  two  types  as  to  dis- 
tribution of  such  gains  over  the  body?  3.  Which  type  of  steer 
yields  the  greater  profit  to  the  feeder?  4.  Which  type  shows 
the  greater  amount  of  offal?  5.  Which  type  carries  the  higher 
percentage  of  tallow?  6.  Which  type  carries  the  higher  per- 
centage of  valuable  cuts?  7.  In  considering  the  various  com- 
mercial cuts  from  the  two  types,  what  differences  are  to  be 
found  as  regards:  weight,  thickness,  covering  of  fat,  marbling, 
color,  and  fineness  of  grain?  8.  Is  the  low  price  paid  for  dairy- 
type  steers  due  to  prejudice,  or  to  an  actual  inferiority  in  the 
value  of  the  carcasses? 

Four  beef-type  steers  and  four  dairy-type  steers  were  put 
on  feed  January  1,  1903,  and  fed  one  year.  The  steers  were  on 
dry  feed  during  the  entire  time,  so  that  the  exact  amount  of  feed 
consumed  by  each  lot  might  be  known.  Of  the  four  beef  steers, 
two  were  high-grade  Herefords,  and  two,  purebred  Angus. 
The  four  dairy  steers  consisted  of  two  Jerseys  and  two  Holsteins. 
The  ages  at  the  beginning  of  the  test  were  approximately  as  fol- 
ows:  Average  of  Herefords,  16  months;  of  Angus,  18  months; 
of  Holsteins,  24  months;  and  of  Jerseys,  18  months.  The  feeds 
given  were  mixed  hay,  sorghum  (during  July  and  August),  corn 
meal,  bran,  oil  meal,  and  gluten  feed.  The  conditions  were 
alike  for  all  the  animals,  and  the  feed  was  the  same,  but  each 
animal  was  given  all  he  would  clean  up  regularly.  At  the  end 
of  the  feeding  test  the  cattle  were  bought  in  separate  lots  by 
the  head  buyer  of  a  packing  company  of  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 
The  prices  given  were  the  market  prices  for  such  steers,  Decem- 
ber 28,  1903. 

Following  is  a  summary  of  the  first  part  of  the  investiga- 
tion: 

Beef  Dairy 

steers  steers 

Average  weight  at  beginning,  Ibs 685  574 

Average  gain  per  steer,  Ibs 606  598 

Average  value  of  feed  consumed  per  steer $47.27  $45. 18 

Average  cost  of  one  pound  of  gain 7. 81c  7. 63c 

Percentage  of  dressed  weight  in  slaughter  test 61 . 7  57. 15 

Selling  value,  average  price  per  pound 4. 888c  3 . 752c 

The  dairy-type  steers  made  their  gains  at  a  trifle  less  cost 
per  pound  than  did  the  beef  steers,  indicating  that  their  digestive 
and  assimilative  functions  were  slightly  more  vigorous  in  this 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          65 

instance.  The  gains  made  by  the  dairy  steers  were  not  dis- 
tributed on  the  body  in  such  a  way  as  to  command  the  highest 
prices.  The  beef-type  steers  made  a  large  proportion  of  their 
gains  on  theback,  loin,  and  hind  quarters,  while  the  dairy- type 
steers  showed  but  little  increase  in  thickness  on  these  parts. 

The  beef-type  steers  were  far  more  profitable  to  the  feeder, 
for  although  both  lots  made  approximately  the  same  total  gains, 
and  although  the  average  of  the  four  dairy-type  steers  com- 
pared with  the  average  of  the  four  beef-type  steers  shows  that 
the  former  made  his  600  pounds  of  gain  cheaper  by  $1.70  than 
did  the  latter,  nevertheless  this  600  pounds  gain  of  the  beef 
steer  brought  $7.18  more  on  the  market.  When  $1.70  is  de- 
ducted from  $7.18,  there  is  left  $5.48  profit  in  favor  of  the  beef 
animals,  or  a  total  of  nearly  $22  for  the  four  head.  Nor  does 
this  represent  all  the  financial  advantage  of  the  beef-type  steer, 
for  the  value  of  the  initial  weight  (685  Ibs.)  of  the  beef  steer  was 
increased  to  a  greater  degree  by  feeding  than  was  the  value  of 
the  initial  weight  of  the  dairy-type  steer.  The  report  of  the 
experiment  furnishes  no  initial  valuations,  hence  a  complete 
accounting  in  this  regard  cannot  be  made. 

Following  are  given  the  weights  of  the  cuts  from  the  car- 
casses, expressed  in  percentages  of  the  total  carcass  weight; 
also  the  wholesale  and  retail  prices  of  these  cuts: 

Weights  in         Wholesale  price         Retail  price 
percentages  per  Ib.  per  Ib. 

Beef     Dairy        Beef       Dairy          Beef     Dairy 


Ribs  

..   9 

.27 

8 

,80 

12 

.25 

10 

.25 

17 

.6 

16. 

Chuck  

..25 

,97 

26 

,78 

5 

.5 

5 

.1 

10 

10. 

Brisket  

5. 

92 

5 

,72 

4 

4 

6 

6. 

Plate  .  .  .  .  

3 

.85 

3 

.48 

4, 

4. 

6. 

6. 

Navel  

3, 

00 

2 

,72 

4. 

4. 

6 

6. 

Shank  meat  

,53 

,66 

5, 

5. 

6. 

6. 

Shank  beef  

'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  2 

.60 

3 

.04 

2 

5 

2 

5 

3, 

2.8 

Loin  

17. 

.55 

17 

.09 

14 

.9 

12 

.5 

/  S.17 
1  P.23 

.6 
.1 

16. 
21. 

Round  

..17. 

74 

18. 

88 

7 

7 

12 

12. 

Rump  

5. 

19 

4. 

,78 

7 

7 

10 

10. 

Flank  steak  

.66 

.58 

10 

10 

12. 

5 

12.5 

Flank  beef  

.   2. 

16 

1 

67 

5 

5 

6 

6. 

Cod  fat  

1, 

,98 

1 

56 

3. 

5 

3 

5 

3, 

5 

3.5 

Suet  

3, 

,48 

4 

.18 

3 

5 

3 

5 

3 

.5 

3.5 

NOTE:     S,  sirloin;  P,  porterhouse. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  carcasses  were  cut  up  into 
a  greater  number  of  parts  than  result  from  the  regular  method 
of  cutting  explained  in  the  previous  chapter,  but  the  differences 
in  the  cuts  are  not  great  enough  to  prevent  a  full  understanding 
of  the  above  table. 


66          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

On  the  basis  of  the  above  figures  we  are  able  to  determine 
the  relative  profits  of  the  beef-  and  dairy-type  steers  to  the 
wholesaler  or  packer.  This  is  shown  as  follows: 

Beef  steers  Dairy  steers 

Cost  of  4  live  steers $242.52  $170.64 

Cost  of  killing  at  $1.50  per  head ....  6. 00  6. 00 

Cost  of  carcasses  and  offal $248. 52  $176. 64 

Received  from  sale  of  hides,  tallow,  and  tongue.  . .     36. 13  30.27 


Cost  of  dressed  beef $212 .39  $146. 37 

Cost  of  dressed  beef  per  Ib 0715  . 0583 

Actual  wholesale  returns  when  beef  was  sold 232. 61  179. 83 

Margin  between  cost  and  selling  price  of  dressed 

beef ....     20.22  33.46 

The  last  item  in  the  above  table  is  interesting.  It  shows 
that  there  was  $20.22  margin  for  the  beef -type  steers  and  $33.46 
for  the  dairy-type  steers,  or  a  difference  of  $13.24  in  favor  of 
the  dairy-type  cattle.  If  this  difference  in  margins  were  applied 
to  the  live-weight  price  of  the  dairy-type  steers,  their  price  per 
cwt.  would  have  been  28  cents  higher;  in  other  words  the  dairy- 
type  steers  would  have  brought  4  cents  per  pound,  instead  of 
3^<  cents. 

At  a  meat  demonstration  in  January,  1904,  conducted  by 
Mr.  John  Gosling,  some  further  important  differences  were 
brought  out  between  the  cuts  from  the  dairy-  and  beef-type 
carcasses.  Mr.  Gosling  is  recognized  as  one  of  the  leading 
authorities  on  meats  in  this  country.  In  grading  the  carcasses, 
he  placed  three  of  the  beef-type  carcasses  as  No.  1,  and  the 
other  as  No.  2.  Two  of  the  dairy- type  carcasses  were  graded 
No.  2,  and  the  other  two  as  No.  3.  The  color  of  the  flesh  was 
fairly  good  in  all  eight  of  the  carcasses,  although  in  the  Jersey 
carcasses  it  was  somewhat  dark.  The  external  color  (or  color 
of  the  fat)  was  good  in  all  except  one — a  Jersey — which  killed 
very  yellow.  The  other  Jersey  killed  very  white,  although,  as 
a  rule,  carcasses  of  Jerseys  or  grade  Jerseys  are  very  yellow. 
The  spines  in  the  backbone  of  the  dairy-type  carcasses  were 
hard,  indicating  the  early  maturity  of  the  dairy  type.  They 
were  much  more  cartilaginous  in  the  beef-type  carcasses,  although 
the  ages  were  nearly  the  same.  The  fore-ribs  from  the  dairy- 
type  steers  were  light  and  lacking  in  marbling.  The  Holstein 
ribs  lacked  depth,  and  were  very  irregular  and  rough.  The 
dairy-type  steers  carried  more  kidney  fat  or  suet;  this  is  a  cheap 
product  which  increases  the  dressing  percentage,  but  reduces 
the  value  of  the  carcass  when  excessive. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


67 


The  answers  to  the  questions  asked  at  the  beginning  of 
the  experiment  are,  therefore,  as  follows:  1.  The  gains  from 
pounds  of  feed  consumed  are  practically  the  same  for  both  the 
beef  and  dairy  types.  2.  The  beef -type  steer  uses  his  gains 
to  slight  advantage  as  compared  with  the  dairy-type,  placing 
a  slightly  greater  percentage  of  his  gains  in  the  valuable  cuts. 

3.  The  beef -type  steer  yields  the  greater  profit  to  the  feeder. 

4.  The  dairy-type  steer  shows   the  greater  amount   of  offal. 

5.  The  dairy-type  steer  carries  the  higher  percentage  of  tallow. 

6.  As  regards  the  percentage  of  valuable  cuts,  there  is  very  little 
difference;  if  any,  it  is  in  favor  of  the  beef -type  steer.    7.  The 
beef-type  steer  yields  cuts  that  are  heavier,  thicker,  usually 


Fig.  12.     Dairy-Type  Steer. 

Holstein  steer  in  the  Iowa  experiment.    His  flat  ribs,  ridgy  back,  and 
angular  appearance  are  characteristic  of  steers  of  dairy  breeding. 

covered  with  whiter  fat,  nicer  in  marbling,  and  a  little  better 
in  color  of  muscle.  There  is  no  apparent  difference  in  fineness 
of  grain.  8.  The  low  price  paid  for  dairy  steers  may  be  due 
partially  to  prejudice,  and  to  the  greater  expense  of  carrying 
and  selling  the  low-grade  carcasses,  but  it  is  chiefly  due  to  an 
actual  inferiority  in  the  carcasses.  They  are  unsatisfactory  to 
the  consumer,  because  they  do  not  furnish  thick  and  well-marbled 
cuts;  they  are  unsatisfactory  to  the  butcher,  because  they  fur- 
nish low-grade  carcasses  which  are  difficult  to  dispose  of;  and 


68          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

they  are  decidedly  unsatisfactory  to  the  feeder,  because  they 
yield  him  little  or  no  profit,  and  both  breeder  and  feeder  waste 
their  time  in  producing  such  a  type  of  steer  for  beef  purposes. 

In  an  earlier  experiment  at  the  Iowa  Station,  James  Wilson 
and  C.  F.  Curtiss  found  the  quantity  of  fat  about  the  internal 
organs  of  fat  steers  of  the  various  breeds  to  be  as  follows: 

Breed                                    Average  dressed  Loose  Per  cent,  of  loose 

weight  tallow  tallow  to  beef 

Shorthorn 1,092  145  13.3 

Hereford 1,022  129  12. 6 

Red  Polled 990  125  12.6 

Galloway 1,088  147  13.5 

Angus -. 1,137  157  13.8 

Devon 815  123  15.0 

Swiss 1,017  119  11.7 

Holstein 862  155  17.9 

Jersey 880  166  18.8 

This  table  gives  further  evidence  of  the  tendency  of  the 
dairy  breeds  to  deposit  proportionately  more  fat  about  the 
intestines,  paunch,  kidneys,  and  caul.  Experiments  at  the 
Kansas  Station  substantiate  the  results  of  the  Iowa  investi- 
gations. (See  also  table  on  page  59.) 

Why  the  dairy  steer  lacks  thick  flesh. — The  experimental 
results  set  forth  above  emphasize  the  lack  of  thickness  in  the 
cuts  from  the  dairy  steer.  In  other  words,  the  dairy  steer  is 
decidedly  lacking  in  muscular  development.  Mr.  John  Gosling 
has  continually  emphasized  this  point  in  his  annual  meat  demon- 
strations at  the  Iowa  State  College.  He  has  conclusively  shown 
that  there  is  a  very  marked  difference  in  the  amount  of  muscle 
or  lean  meat  present  at  birth  in  calves  of  dairy  ancestry  as  con- 
trasted with  those  of  good  beef  breeding,  and  he  has  also  shown 
that  from  a  practical  standpoint,  at  least,  feeding  does  not 
increase  the  relative  proportion  of  muscle  in  the  make-up  of  an 
animal.  His  demonstration  in  January,  1918,  included  a  beef 
calf  and  a  dairy  calf,  less  than  a  week  old,  which  were  not  selected 
for  veals,  but  were  used  to  demonstrate  the  vast  difference  in 
the  natural  flesh  or  muscle  present  at  birth  in  these  two  types 
of  cattle.  The  accompanying  illustrations  show  the  difference. 
There  was  no  visible  fat  on  either  of  them,  but  the  beef  calf 
was  thick,  plump,  and  rounding,  with  muscles  like  the  breast  of 
a  quail,  while  the  dairy  calf  was  flat  and  thin  in  all  parts.  The 
beef  calf  was  thick  in  neck  and  arm,  broad  of  back  and  loin,  full 
in  rump,  bulging  in  thighs,  and  carried  his  beef  to  the  hocks. 
The  dairy  calf  was  scrawny  in  his  neck,  ridgy  along  the  spine, 
narrow  and  shabby  over  the  rump,  and  light  and  tapering  in 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          69 

his  rounds.  The  evidence  is  unquestionable.  Fat  can  be  put 
on  by  feeding,  but  the  muscle  comes  only  by  inheritance.  The 
dairy  calf  is  "born  wrong"  from  a  beef  standpoint,  and  no  known 
method  of  feeding  and  management  can  correct  its  deficiency. 

Professor  W.  A.  Henry,  of  the  Wisconsin  Station,  has  writ- 
ten the  following  pointed  statement*  relative  to  the  compara- 
tive merits  of  beef- type  and  dairy- type  steers: 


Fig.  13.     Carcasses  of  Beef  and  Dairy  Calves. 

These  calves  were  slaughtered  when  less  than  a  week  old.  Neither 
carcass  showed  any  degree  of  fat.  Note  the  muscling  in  round,  rump,  loin, 
rib,  shoulder,  arm,  and  neck  of  the  beef  calf  on  the  left  as  compared  to  the 
dairy  calf  on  the  right. 

"Beyond  that  which  can  be  expressed  in  figures  or  stated 
percentagely  lies  that  indefinable  something  described  by  the 
word  'quality'  which  enters  into  all  objects  of  barter.  No  one 
can  compare  a  bunch  of  well-fed  beef-bred  steers  with  one  repre- 
senting the  dairy  breeds  without  being  impressed  by  a  difference 


*  Feeds  and  Feeding,  p.  443. 


70 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


not  measured  by  the  scales The  matter  at  issue  may 

be  illustrated  by  a  condition  in  the  fruit  world:  No  orchardist 
will  hold  that  the  Baldwin  apple  tree  necessarily  grows  faster 
than  the  seedling  apple  tree,  or  that  it  will  make  wood  and  fruit 
on  less  material  from  soil  and  air.  Neither  will  he  hold  that 
Baldwin  trees  necessarily  yield  more  barrels  of  fruit  than  seed- 
lings, nor  that  a  given  measure  of  Baldwin  apples  contains  more 
juice  or  human  food  than  the  same  measure  of  common  seedling 


Fig.  14.     Carcasses  of  Beef  and  Dairy  Calves. 

Back  view  of  carcasses  shown  in  Fig.  13.  Beef  calf  on  left,  dairy  calf 
on  right.  Note  the  rounds,  rumps,  loins,  backs,  shoulders,  and  necks.  The 
marked  difference  in  the  muscling  inherited  by  these  two  calves  is  plainly 
evident. 

apples.  Fruit  growers  do  rightfully  assert,  however,  that  the 
market  wants  Baldwin  apples  and  will  pay  more  for  them  than 
for  common  seedling  fruit,  and  that  from  this  judgment  of  the 
market,  be  it  reasonable  or  unreasonable,  there  is  no  appeal. 
Beef  cattle  have  been  bred  for  meat  production — it  would  be 
passing  strange  if  they  did  not  excel  for  that  purpose." 


CHAPTER  V. 
AMERICAN  CATTLE  MARKETS. 

The  largest  live-stock  markets  of  the  United  States  are 
located  in  the  central  part  of  the  country.  With  the  West 
and  Central  West  on  the  one  hand  as  the  great  breeding  and 
feeding  ground,  and  with  the  East  on  the  other  as  the  chief 
region  of  consumption,  it  is  logical  that  the  large  markets 
have  a  central  location.  Following  are  the  fourteen  largest 
cattle  markets  and  their  receipts  of  cattle,  including  calves, 
during  1918: 

I.Chicago..  ..4,447,689  8.  Sioux  City 817,593 

2.  Kansas  City 3,319,511  9.  Denver 728,268 

3.  Omaha. .  .  .1,993,366  10.  Oklahoma  City 690,109 

4.  Fort  Worth 1,665,009  11.  Buffalo 667,671 

5.  St.  Louis 1,509,409  12.  Pittsburg 522,683 

6.  St.  Paul 1,430,408  13.  Indianapolis 504,190 

7.  St.  Joseph 869,888  14.  Cincinnati 455,291 


Total 19,621,085 

The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Markets  reports  the  total  receipts  of 
cattle  and  calves  at  53  markets  during  1918  at  24,955,111.  The 
fourteen  markets  listed  above  received  over  78  per  cent,  of  this 
total. 

From  the  above  figures  we  see  that  the  Chicago  market  is 
the  largest  in  the  United  States,  in  fact  Chicago  is  the  largest 
cattle  market  in  the  world.  In  1918,  Chicago  received  3,789,922 
cattle  and  657,767  calves,  the  largest  year's  receipts  since 
the  opening  of  the  yards  in  1865.  Cattle  weighing  300  pounds 
or  less  per  head  are  classed  as  calves.  The  3,789,922  cattle 
received  during  1918,  if  placed  in  a  procession,  allowing  ten 
feet  of  space  for  each  animal,  would  form  a  line  7100  miles  long. 
Their  total  value  was  $463,038,180.  Their  average  value  per 
head  was  $122.  Their  average  weight  was  941  pounds.  Their 
average  price  per  cwt.  was  $13.  The  number  of  western  range 
cattle  received  at  Chicago  in  1918  was  434,300,  the  largest  on 
record.  These  cattle  constituted  about  llyZ  per  cent,  of  all 
cattle  received.  The  total  value  of  the  calves  was  $14,400,162; 
their  average  value  per  head  was  a  little  less  than  $22;  their 
average  weight  was  139  pounds;  and  their  average  price  per  cwt. 
was  a  little  less  than  $16. 

71 


72          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  census  of  1909  estimated  that  13,611,422  cattle  and 
6,515,976  calves  were  slaughtered  in  the  United  States  in  that 
year.  It  is  estimated  that  about  three-fifths  of  the  beef  cattle 
marketed  in  the  United  States  pass  through  the  large  central 
markets,  that  about  one-third  are  sold  for  local  slaughter,  and 
that  about  one-tenth  are  slaughtered  on  farms  and  ranges. 
Considering  that  the  animals  which  are  shipped  to  the  central- 
ized markets  generally  are  of  heavier  weights  and  of  higher 
grades  than  stock  slaughtered  locally,  it  is  apparent  that  prob- 
ably two-thirds  or  more  of  the  beef  consumed  is  the  product  of 
animals  which  pass  through  the  large  central  markets.  About 
two-fifths  of  the  calves  are  slaughtered  by  the  large  packers, 
a  little  less  than  half  are  slaughtered  locally,  and  about  one- 
sixth  are  slaughtered  on  farms  and  ranges. 

The  great  markets  of  the  Middle  West  are  points  of  focus 
of  never-ending  processions  of  beef  animals  moving  from  western 
ranges  and  cornbelt  feed-lots.  Upon  reaching  market,  the  cattle 
are  either  slaughtered  at  the  great  packing  houses  located  at 
the  stock  yards,  or  are  shipped  out  of  market  on  the  hoof.  Both 
dressed  carcasses  and  live  animals  are  shipped  to  various  cities 
and  towns  to  fill  the  orders  of  retail  butchers.  For  example, 
the  Chicago  packing  houses  slaughtered  2,800,051  cattle  in  1918, 
and  the  remaining  989,871  head  were  shipped  out  alive.  Of 
the  latter  number,  586,557  were  shipped  to  various  parts  of 
the  country  for  slaughter,  and  403,314  were  taken  out  for  feeding. 

An  investigation  by  the  U.  S.  Office  of  Markets  and  Rural 
Organization  in  1915,  indicated  that  42  per  cent,  of  cattle  are 
marketed  in  the  fall,  19  per  cent,  in  the  winter,  21  per  cent,  in 
the  spring,  and  18  per  cent,  in  the  summer.  Both  the  buying 
of  stockers  and  feeders  and  the  selling  of  fat  stock  are  confined 
to  a  few  months  of  the  year.  Movements  of  live  stock  are 
largely  controlled  by  such  factors  as  the  limits  of  the  grazing 
season,  the  maturity  of  crops  for  feeding,  distribution  of  labor, 
etc.,  and  it  is  not  advisable  that  monthly  shipments  of  live  stock 
to  market  be  absolutely  equalized,  yet  it  is  at  the  same  time  true 
that  a  more  even  distribution  is,  within  limits,  desirable  to 
both  producer  and  consumer. 

Zone  system  of  marketing  at  Chicago. — At  Chicago,  in 
1915,  42  per  cent,  of  cattle  were  received  on  Mondays,  10  per 
cent,  on  Tuesdays,  33  per  cent,  on  Wednesdays,  10  per  cent,  on 
Thursdays,  4  per  cent,  on  Fridays,  and  less  than  1  per  cent,  on 
Saturdays.  A  similar,  though  less  marked,  condition  prevailed 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          73 

with  respect  to  hogs  and  sheep.  In  order  to  more  nearly  equalize 
receipts,  the  zone  system  of  marketing  was  applied  to  the  Chicago 
Union  Stock  Yards  on  December  10,  1917,  and  has  been  con- 
tinued to  the  present  time.  This  system  was  inaugurated  by 
the  U.  S.  Food  Administration  as  a  war  measure.  Under  this 
plan  a  circle  is  drawn  on  the  map  so  as  to  include  Eastern  Iowa, 
Illinois,  and  most  of  Wisconsin.  The  regulations  provide  that 
those  who  live  within  the  circle  may  ship  their  stock  so  as  to 
arrive  on  the  Chicago  market  on  Tuesday,  Thursday,  and  Satur- 
day, and  that  those  outside  the  line  may  ship  so  as  to  arrive  at 
Chicago  on  Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday.  The  stabilizing 
effects  of  this  system  are  shown  by  the  fact  that,  during  1918, 
30  per  cent,  of  cattle  were  received  at  Chicago  on  Monday, 
23  per  cent,  on  Tuesday,  14  per  cent,  on  Wednesday,  19  per  cent, 
on  Thursday,  10  per  cent,  on  Friday,  and  4  per  cent,  on  Satur- 
day. 

Early  cattle  markets. — A  century  ago  cattle  markets  were 
small  and  largely  local  in  character.  The  "West"  at  that  time 
comprised  what  we  now  designate  as  the  Middle  West,  embrac- 
ing Kentucky,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois,  and  the  live-stock 
business  and  the  meat  business  of  that  time  were  far  different 
propositions  than  today.  There  were  no  railroads,  no  live-stock 
cars,  no  refrigerator  cars,  no  steamships,  and  no  large  live-stock 
markets.  Every  large  town  had  its  own  stock  yards  or  cattle 
market  to  which  cattle  were  driven  from  the  surrounding  coun- 
try and  sold  to  butchers.  The  cattle  business  and  the  meat 
business  were  local  affairs  of  small  dimensions  depending  upon 
the  size  of  the  town.  In  time,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston, 
and  Baltimore  became  rather  large  markets,  and  in  some  instances 
cattle  were  driven  long  distances  to  supply  them. 

Early  methods  of  transportation. — This  was  before  the  days 
of  railroads,  and  even  after  the  railroads  came,  very  few  live 
animals  were  carried  until  about  1860.  Prior  to  1850,  it  was 
the  general  practice  to  drive  live  stock  to  market  on  foot.  At 
that  time,  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  pasturage  was  free 
along  the  routes,  and  the  animals  were  driven  by  easy  stages, 
reaching  market  without  very  much  depreciation.  George 
Renick,  of  Ohio,  was  perhaps  the  first  man  to  find  an  outlet  for 
cattle  fattened  in  what  was  then  "The  West."  He  was  one  of 
the  first  settlers  of  the  Scioto  Valley,  having  come  in  with  his 
brother,  Felix,  from  Virginia,  and  selected  large  tracts  of  land 
near  the  present  site  of  Chillicothe,  Ohio.  In  1805,  against 


74          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

the  advice  of  his  neighbors,  he  successfully  drove  sixty-eight 
head  of  cattle  from  the  Scioto  to  Baltimore,  and  disposed  of 
them  at  a  profit.  This  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  western 
cattle  business  of  that  time,  and  afforded  a  means  of  marketing 
corn.  In  1817,  Felix  Renick  drove  one  hundred  head  of  prime 
Shorthorn  steers  to  Philadelphia,  receiving  $134  per  head  for 
them.  He  became  the  leading  producer  of  high-class  cattle  in 
Ohio,  and  one  of  the  most  extensive  breeders  and  feeders  in  the 
United  States.  R.  R.  Seymour,  of  Ohio,  fed  100  to  700  annually, 
and  in  1841  drove  840  head  to  Philadelphia. 

One  route  from  Kentucky  to  New  York  City  covered  about 
800  miles  and  required  over  ten  weeks  to  complete  it.  Another 
route  from  Lexington  extended  to  Charleston,  S.  C.,  a  distance 
of  550  to  600  miles.  Drives  to  the  eastern  seaboard  were  made 
from  as  far  west  as  Iowa,  and  even  Texas  cattle  passed  eastward 
in  this  manner.  There  is  record  of  a  drove  of  several  hundred 
cattle  from  Texas  passing  through  Pennsylvania,  on  the  way  to 
New  York  City,  which  had  left  Texas  four  months  previously. 
Sheep  were  driven  across  country  also,  notably  from  Vermont 
to  Virginia.  Large  numbers  of  hogs  were  driven  to  market, 
but  they  were  a  more  active  type  than  the  modern  fat  hog. 
By  1860,  few  hogs  were  driven  any  considerable  distance.  Today 
we  do  not  even  drive  hogs  from  the  farm  to  the  shipping  point, 
but  haul  them  in  wagons. 

Development  of  large  markets. — The  large  live-stock  mar- 
kets grew  up  with  the  country.  As  long  as  the  market  was 
simply  the  scene  of  barter  in  live  animals  for  local  use,  no  large 
markets  were  developed.  About  1830  pork-packing  was  begun, 
and  this  furnished  the  first  impetus  to  the  creation  of  large 
markets  of  more  than  mere  local  importance.  Pork  could  be 
pickled,  salted,  and  smoked,  and  the  fat  rendered  into  lard, 
and  the  products  thus  produced  could  be  shipped  to  distant 
points.  As  these  products  met  with  good  demand,  pork- 
packing  was  the  natural  beginning  of  a  vast  meat-manufactur- 
ing business,  tending  to  centralize  the  hog  markets,  and  much 
increase  them  in  size.  So  far  as  cattle  were  concerned,  how- 
ever, the  development  was  not  parallel.  Outside  of  an  article 
known  as  barreled  beef,  which  was  put  down  in  salt,  packers 
had  found  no  method  of  handling  beef  as  they  did  hogs.  Not 
until  the  era  of  the  refrigerator  car,  beginning  in  1875,  were 
cattle  of  much  interest  to  packers,  and  not  until  that  time  did 
the  large  cattle  markets  reach  a  maximum  development. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          75 

The  advent  of  railroads  marked  a  decided  turning  point 
in  the  development  of  the  live-stock  industry  and  the  live-stock 
markets.  However,  it  was  a  long  time  after  the  hauling  of 
live  stock  had  been  taken  up  by  railroads  before  it  was  done 
efficiently.  An  account  of  one  of  the  first  shipments  of  cattle 
from  Kentucky  to  New  York  City,  made  in  1852,  shows  how 
crude  and  expensive  were  the  first  attempts  at  transporting 
cattle  by  rail.  One  week  was  consumed  in  driving  the  cattle, 
one  hundred  in  number,  from  near  Lexington,  Ky.,  to  Cincinnati, 
where  they  were  loaded  in  box  cars  and  shipped  to  Cleveland. 
They  were  taken  to  Buffalo  by  boat,  where  they  were  given 
several  days  rest  and  then  driven  to  Canandaigua,  N.  Y.  They 
were  at  once  hauled  to  Albany  in  immigrant  wagons,  rested  two 
days  in  a  feed-yard,  and  sent  to  New  York  by  boat.  The  cost 
of  the  shipment  from  Kentucky  to  New  York  City  was  $14 
per  head. 

The  cattle  markets  of  the  United  States  migrated  from 
east  to  west,  following  closely  upon  the  settling  up  of  the  coun- 
try. It  was  at  one  time  believed  that  Albany  was  to  be  the 
final  gateway  for  western  cattle.  Next  Buffalo,  Pittsburg,  and 
Cincinnati  were  in  turn  regarded  as  the  future  great  market 
of  the  country;  but  eventually  it  became  evident  that  Chicago, 
by  virtue  of  location  and  railroad  facilities,  was  to  become  and 
remain  the  largest  cattle  market  in  America.  This  fact  was 
clearly  established  by  1870. 

Chicago's  early  cattle  trade. — The  history  of  Chicago  as 
a  cattle  market  extends  back  many  years  to  the  time  when  a 
few  hundred  animals  were  driven  in  to  supply  the  garrison  at 
old  Fort  Dearborn.  It  was  not  until  the  advent  of  railroads, 
however,  that  Chicago  took  prominence  as  a  live-stock  center. 
When  railroad  communication  with  the  Atlantic  seaboard  was 
established  and  lines  were  built  from  Lake  Michigan  toward 
the  Mississippi,  a  revolution  was  brought  about.  Half  a  dozen 
stock  yards  were  located  in  various  parts  of  the  city,  and  when 
these  became  glutted,  the  cattle  were  grazed  on  the  surround- 
ing prairie  until  a  price  could  be  realized.  Mess  pork  and 
barreled  beef  were  staple  articles  known  to  the  trade  under 
the  appetizing  names  of  "sow  belly"  and  "salt  horse."  Dressed 
beef  was  then  unknown  to  commerce,  artificial  refrigeration 
was  not  even  speculated  upon,  the  refrigerator  car  existed  merely 
as  an  idea,  if  at  all,  and  the  canning  of  meats  had  not  been  at- 
tempted. Armour  was  not  a  prominent  name  at  that  time, 


76          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Swift  had  not  yet  discovered  Chicago,  and  nearly  every  concern 
then  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  meats  has  since  gone  out 
of  business. 

Prior  to  1870,  the  Chicago  cattle  business  was  almost  ex- 
clusively a  matter  of  buying,  selling,  and  shipping  live  animals. 
Then  there  were  no  market  papers  to  inform  the  producer  of 
the  state  of  the  market,  and  no  well-organized  commission 
firms  to  attend  to  the  disposal  of  his  stock.  The  producer  did 
most  of  his  own  selling.  There  was  danger  of  finding  the  mar- 
ket glutted,  or  shipping  facilities  swamped.  Since  that  time 
a  trade  mechanism  and  a  trade  demand  have  grown  up,  bring- 
ing a  constant  market  and  quick,  sure  sales  for  the  cattleman. 
The  loss  by  wear  and  tear  in  shipment  from  farm  to  market 
has  been  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

In  the  early  days  it  was  all  guesswork — guesswork  as  to 
how  long  it  would  take  to  reach  the  market,  guesswork  as  to 
the  freight  charges,  guesswork  as  to  promptness  in  handling 
the  stock  by  railroads,  guesswork  as  to  the  condition  of  the 
market,  guesswork  as  to  the  price  the  animals  would  bring. 
Luck  usually  counted  for  more  in  determining  the  profits  than 
did  skill  in  the  preparation  of  cattle  for  market. 

Founding  of  the  Union  Stock  Yards. — Prior  to  1865,  Chicago 
had  several  stock  yards  of  minor  importance  and  located  in 
different  sections  of  the  city.  The  first  was  the  old  Bull's  Head 
Stock  Yards,  opened  in  1848,  at  the  corner  of  Madison  Street 
and  Ogden  Avenue.  At  this  time  Chicago  had  a  population  of 
only  20,000,  but  was  growing  rapidly.  In  1865,  John  B.  Sher- 
man organized  the  Union  Stock  Yard  and  Transit  Company, 
which  purchased  320  acres  at  39th  and  Halsted  streets  and 
opened  the  present  Union  Stock  Yards,  thus  laying  the  basis 
for  a  greater  live-stock  trade  at  Chicago.  In  1876  the  Union 
Stock  Yards  comprised  475  cattle  yards,  675  covered  hog  and 
sheep  pens,  375  chutes,  15  corn  cribs,  and  10  hay  barns.  The 
company  owned  and  operated  24  miles  of  railway,  had  put  down 
several  miles  of  macadamized  streets  and  alleys,  and  installed 
a  drainage  system.  The  market  could  then  accommodate  at 
one  time  20,000  cattle,  100,000  hogs,  15,000  sheep,  and  1000 
horses^in  all,  136,000  animals.  About  one  hundred  com- 
mission firms  were  then  doing  business. 

The  Union  Stock  Yards  today.— The  Union  Stock  Yard 
and  Transit  Company  receives,  unloads,  yards,  feeds,  waters, 
weighs,  and  delivers  or  reships  live  stock,  but  neither  buys, 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          77 


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78          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

sells,  nor  slaughters  animals.  It  is  a  great  transportation  and 
marketing  corporation,  which  connects  all  the  twenty-six  rail- 
way systems  entering  Chicago  with  the  Union  Stock  Yards, 
and  provides  unloading  platforms,  chutes,  pens,  buildings,  and 
all  necessary  facilities  for  doing  an  immense  daily  business  in 
handling  live  animals,  but  takes  no  part  in  the  transaction  of 
the  market.  The  Chicago  yards  now  occupy  an  area  of  500 
acres,  450  of  which  are  paved.  There  are  25  miles  of  streets, 
and  300  miles  of  railway  tracks.  The  number  of  pens  is  13,000, 
of  which  8,500  are  double-decked  and  covered;  there  are  725 
chutes,  25,000  gates,  25  miles  of  watering  troughs,  and  450 
commission  and  other  offices.  The  water  system  has  a  reser- 
voir holding  10,000,000  gallons,  and  pumps  with  a  daily  capacity 
of  8,000,000  gallons,  of  which  7,000,000  gallons  are  consumed 
on  hot  days.  Separate  accommodations  are  provided  for  each 
kind  of  stock;  sheep  and  hogs  are  kept  in  sheds  of  two  or  more 
stories  each,  and  cattle  occupy  open  pens  holding  from  one  to 
several  carloads.  These  yards  would  hold  at  one  time  75,000 
cattle,  125,000  sheep,  300,000  hogs,  and  6,000  horses  and  mules. 
It  is  estimated  that  50,000  people  earn  a  living  at  the  stock  yards 
and  the  packing  plants,  and  that  250,000  of  Chicago's  population 
are  more  or  less  dependent  on  the  live-stock  industry. 

Since  1900,  a  yearly  average  of  more  than  15,000,000  ani- 
mals have  found  a  cash  market  at  Chicago.  Since  1865, 
116,153,488  cattle,  9,832,996  calves,  328,293,317  hogs,  132,627,438 
sheep,  and  3,536,796  horses  have  been  handled,  making  a  grand  to- 
tal of  590,444,035  animals,  the  value  of  which  was  $12,498,228,223. 
Sixty  per  cent,  of  the  cattle  received  at  Chicago  are  slaugh- 
tered there,  also  83  per  cent,  of  the  calves,  77  per  cent,  of  the 
hogs,  and  74  per  cent,  of  the  sheep.  The  business  often  amounts 
to  $5,000,000  in  a  day,  and  averages  well  over  $2,000,000  for 
every  business  day  of  the  year.  Not  infrequently  2,000  car- 
loads of  stock  are  received  on  Monday  or  Wednesday,  the  largest 
market  days.  When  unloaded,  the  stock  is  taken  in  charge  by 
some  one  of  the  many  commission  firms  who  sell  to  the  packer, 
shipper,  speculator,  or  feeder,  and  remit  the  proceeds  to  the 
consignor.  Prices  established  on  this  leading  market  form  the 
basis  of  values  for  live  stock  at  other  markets  and  throughout 
the  country. 

Average  carloads. — Reports  of  stock  yards  and  railroads 
show  that  the  average  number  of  meat  animals  to  the  carload 
is  for  cattle  about  25,  hogs  in  single-deck  cars  about  75,  and 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          79 

sheep  about  120  per  deck.  These  figures  represent  mere  averages. 
The  number  of  animals  per  car  varies  greatly  depending  on  the 
age  and  size  of  the  animals.  For  example,  a  stock  car  36  feet 
long  will  hold  55  calves  weighing  400  Ibs.  each,  35  yearlings 
weighing  700  Ibs.,  25  cattle  averaging  1000  Ibs.,  21  cattle  weigh- 
ing 1200  Ibs.,  or  19  cattle  weighing  1400  Ibs.  each. 

Sources  of  receipts. — The  corn-growing  area  of  the  Mississ- 
ippi and  Missouri  valleys  affords  the  best  facilities  for  the 
production  of  meat  animals,  and  this  area  is  tapped  at  many 
points  by  lines  of  railway  centering  in  Chicago.  The  corn-fed 
cattle  of  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
andfOhio,  and  the  grass-fed  cattle  of  Montana,  Wyoming,  the 
Dakotas,  and  Texas,  have  easy  access  to  Chicago.  Steers  are 
sold  in  Chicago  that  were  born  in  Texas,  matured  in  Montana, 
and  finished  in  an  Iowa  feed-lot.  Sheep  often  experience  simi- 
lar wanderings  before  reaching  market,  but  hogs  usually  come 
direct  from  the  farm  on  which  they  were  farrowed. 

V  Federal  inspection. — Federal  inspection  for  disease  is  rigid 
and  includes  live  animals,  carcasses,  and  packing-house  prod- 
ucts intended  as  food.  In  1915,  the  federal  inspection  con- 
ducted at  all  the  large  packing  plants  and  at  numerous  other 
establishments  throughout  the  country  resulted  in  the  condem- 
nation at  slaughter  of  3.44  per  cent,  of  cattle,  .51  per  cent  of 
calves,  3.40  per  cent,  of  hogs,  .15  per  cent,  of  sheep,  and  .41 
per  cent,  of  goats.  The  average  of  all  animals  was  1.83  per 
cent.  Meat  condemned  after  slaughter,  including  all  meat  and 
meat  food  products,  prepared  and  processed,  amounted  to  .36 
per  cent.  Nothing  has  done  more  to  instil  confidence  in  packers' 
meats  than  has  the  rigid  governmental  inspection.  Packers' 
losses  are  frequently  heavy  on  account  of  this  inspection,  mainly 
owing  to  tuberculosis.  Crippled  animals  may  go  into  the  food 
supply.  Diseased  animals,  diseased  meats,  and  dead  animals 
are  consigned  to  the  rendering  tank,  the  products  of  which  are 
grease,  glue,  and  fertilizer. 

Development  of  the  packing  industry. — No  explanation  of 
the  rise  of  the  large  live-stock  markets  in  America  is  complete 
without  some  reference  to  the  development  of  the  immense 
packing  industry.  The  history  of  the  meat  business  is  closely 
interwoven  with  the  history  of  the  live-stock  markets,  the  two 
enterprises  being  mutually  dependent  upon  each  other.  The 
Chicago  market  benefitted  not  only  from  its  location  and  ship- 
ping facilities,  but  to  a  great  extent  also  because  of  the  large 


80          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

packing  interests  which  centered  there.  That  part  of  the  yards 
where  the  group  of  packing  plants  is  located  is  called  "Packing- 
town."  The  various  plants  composing  it  are  owned  by  Armour 
&  Co.,  Swift  &  Co.,  Morris  &  Co.,  Wilson  &  Co.,  Libby,  McNeill 
&  Libby,  Anglo-American  Packing  Co.,  Roberts  &  Oake,  Ham- 
mond Packing  Co.,  Western  Packing  Co.,  Louis  Pfaelzer  &  Co., 
Boyd-Lunham  Packing  Co.,  Miller  &  Hart,  Independent  Pack- 
ing Co.,  Brennan  Packing  Co.,  and  others.  Many  of  these  firms 
do  a  big  business  in  dressed  beef,  thereby  increasing  the  demand 
and  helping  to  sustain  prices  for  live  cattle  at  Chicago. 

The  numbers  of  cattle  and  calves  slaughtered  by  leading 
Chicago  packers  in  1917  and  1918  were  as  follows: 

Cattle  Calves 

1918  1917  1918  1917 

Armour  &  Co .  .551,472  501,475  219,858  216,180 

Swift  &  Co 451,466  389,823  141,993  108,925 

Wilson  &  Co 390,412  325,239  78,944  69,537 

Morris  &  Co 369,136  350,061  97,020  97,895 

Hammond  Co .231,714  174,771  7,292  25,680 

Libby  Co 172,914  152,344  

Anglo-American 38,959  42,649          


Totals 2,206,073       1,936,362          545,107          516,217 

As  already  pointed  out,  hogs  benefitted  from  the  packing 
industry  long  before  cattle,  because  beef  did  not  interest  packers 
to  a  great  extent  until  the  invention  of  artificial  refrigeration 
and  the  substitution  of  the  tin  can  for  the  oak  barrel.  Arthur 
Libby  introduced  canned  corn  beef  in  1874,  which  was  followed 
by  dozens  of  palatable  canned  preparations.  Previous  to  the 
installation  of  ice  machines,  packing  operations  were  largely 
confined  to  the  season  of  low  temperatures. 

In  1876,  about  250,000  cattle  were  slaughtered  in  Chicago, 
and  more  than  three-fourths  of  these  were  handled  by  two  firms 
—the  Wilson  Packing  Co.,  and  Libby,  McNeill  &  Libby.  The 
Wilson  Packing  Co.  canned  15,000  to  16,000  head  of  cattle 
annually,  and  Libby,  McNeill  &  Libby  over  180,000,  about  one- 
half  being  canned  and  the  other  half  put  in  barrels  and  tierces. 
Three-fourths  of  the  product  went  to  Great  Britain. 

The  refrigerator  car. — There  have  been  three  eras  in  the 
evolution  of  the  American  meat  industry:  (1)  The  era  of 
pickled  meats,  such  as  hams,  pork  products  generally,  and 
salted  beef;  (2)  the  era  of  artificial  refrigeration  and  the  refrig- 
erator car;  (3)  the  era  of  complete  utilization  of  by-products. 
The  supremacy  during  the  first  era  was  first  at  Cincinnati,  but 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          81 

it  shifted  to  Chicago  in  the  early  sixties.  In  the  early  days, 
packing  houses  were  operated  only  during  the  winter  months, 
and  no  meats  were  packed  in  summer  until  large  chill  rooms  were 
made  possible  through  successful  artificial  refrigeration.  In 
1875,  Philip  D.  Armour  erected  in  Chicago  the  first  really  large- 
scale  chill  room  in  the  world,  although  small  ice  boxes  had  pre- 
viously been  used  by  others.  As  early  as  1868  a  refrigerator 
car  had  been  invented,  but  it  was  not  until  1869  that  the  first 
through-line  railroad  was  opened  up  between  Chicago  and  New 
York  so  that  cars  of  western  meat  could  be  shipped  through  to 
eastern  markets  without  unloading.  In  1869  the  first  consign- 
ment of  dressed  beef  was  shipped  from  Chicago  to  Boston,  but 
the  attempt  was  not  successful.  In  1875,  G.  F.  Swift,  who  had 
come  to  Chicago  that  year,  and  who  founded  what  is  now  Swift 
&  Co.,  fitted  up  a  car  and  shipped  it  east  successfully.  There- 
upon, this  branch  of  the  packing  business  was  entered  into  rapidly, 
thus  eliminating  freight  charges  on  the  40  to  44  per  cent,  waste 
of  the  live  animal,  the  shrink  on  cattle  during  the  long  haul, 
the  expense  of  feeding  and  watering  en  route,  and  the  loss  of 
those  which  died  in  transit.  It  cost  $4.00  to  $4.40  to  ship  a 
steer  of  1,250  pounds  weight  from  Chicago  to  New  York,  while 
the  freight  on  the  700  pounds  of  fresh  beef  yielded  by  the  ani- 
mal would  amount  to  only  $3.15,  not  including  the  expense  of 
icing.  From  Kansas  City  to  New  York  the  saving  amounts  to 
about  $2.50  per  head. 

The  total  number  of  refrigerator  cars  in  the  United  States 
is  in  excess  of  100,000.  Of  this  number,  about  38,000  are  under 
private  as  distinguished  from  railroad  ownership.  About  two- 
thirds  of  the  privately  owned  refrigerator  cars  are  controlled 
by  four  leading  packers,  Armour,  Swift,  Morris,  and  Cudahy, 
and  nearly  one-half  are  used  chiefly  in  the  meat  trade. 

Shrinkage  of  beef  cattle  in  transit. — In  an  investigation 
made  in  1913  by  W.  F.  Ward  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,*  cattle  in  transit  less  than  24  hours  shrank  from  2.05 
to  3.91  per  cent.  Those  in  transit  from  24  to  36  hours  shrank 
from  3.46  to  6.37  per  cent.  Those  in  transit  from  36  to  72  hours 
shrank  3.88  to  5.40  per  cent.  Those  in  transit  over  72  hours 
shrank  from  3.96  to  7.00  per  cent.  These  figures  are  based  on 
live  weight  at  origin  and  "filled"  weight  at  market. 


*  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  25,  pp.  73,  74. 


82          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Pioneer  exports  of  beef. — Still  greater  savings  have  been 
effected  by  changes  in  the  export  trade.  Mr.  John  J.  Bate, 
of  New  York,  was  the  first  to  undertake  shipments  of  dressed 
carcasses  to  Europe.  On  February  11,  1875,  he  made  a  small 
shipment  to  Liverpool  which  arrived  in  good  condition.  This 
was  followed,  on  June  6,  by  a  larger  shipment,  and  on  August  10, 
a  still  larger  consignment  to  Liverpool  was  made,  all  arriving 
in  good  condition.  In  October,  1875,  Mr.  Timothy  C.  Eastman 
began  his  first  shipments  of  fresh  beef  from  America  to  England ; 
Mr.  Eastman  is  generally  regarded  as  the  pioneer  in  this  enter- 
prise. He  built  up  a  very  large  business  which  continued 
many  years.  Others  entered  into  the  industry,  and  shipments 
were  made  from  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Portland,  Me. 
American  beef  was  found  in  no  way  inferior  to  British  beef, 
and  was  sold  at  from  four  to  six  cents  lower  retail  rates.  The 
advent  of  American  meats  caused  considerable  excitement 
among  British  farmers  and  stockmen,  and  considerable  prejudice 
against  our  meats  was  aroused  at  some  points,  which  has  never 
been  wholly  overcome.  The  business  increased  rapidly,  meats 
being  successfully  shipped  from  Chicago  to  England.  A  saving 
of  more  than  one-half  in  shipping  expenses  is  effected  by  export- 
ing dressed  beef  rather  than  its  equivalent  in  live  animals.  From 
Argentina  to  England,  two-thirds  of  the  live- weight  expenses 
are  saved  by  sending  dressed  beef. 

The  modern  packing  plant. — No  better  illustration  of  the 
growth  of  the  packing  industry  can  be  had  than  that  afforded 
by  the  rise  and  present  proportions  of  one  of  the  large  packing 
companies  at  Chicago.  In  1885,  this  concern  was  capitalized 
at  $300,000;  in  1886,  at  $3,000,000;  in  1896,  at  $15,000,000; 
later  at  $35,000,000;  in  1906  at  $50,000,000;  and  in  1918  it  was 
$150,000,000.  It  has  packing  plants  in  several  American  cities 
and  also  in  South  America  and  Australia,  but  the  figures  here 
presented  apply  only  to  its  business  in  the  United  States.  It  has 
over  400  branch  houses  in  the  principal  cities  and  towns  of  the 
United  States,  and  owns  and  operates  7000  refrigerator  cars.  Its 
output  of  meat  of  all  kinds  in  1918  was  almost  3  billion  pounds.  Its 
sales  in  1918  totalled  over  $1,200,000,000.  It  paid  $682,000,000 
to  live-stock  producers.  Its  profit  on  meat  sales  was  only 
about  2  per  cent.,  but  the  capital  was  turned  over  several  times 
during  the  year.  It  earned  7.6  per  cent,  on  the  capital  em- 
ployed. It  paid  its  25,000  stockholders  a  6  per  cent,  dividend 
amounting  to  $9,000,000.  In  the  year,  it  shipped  760,000,000 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          83 

pounds  of  meat  to  the  American  Army  and  Navy  at  home  and 
abroad  and  to  the  Allied  nations.  In  1918,  its  Chicago  plant 
converted  into  dressed  meat  450,000  cattle,  142,000  calves, 
1,200,000  sheep,  and  1,144,000  hogs. 

The  American  packing  industry  has  made  the  outlet  for 
American  meats  practically  world-wide,  and  has  afforded  to 
the  American  grower  of  live  stock  an  opportunity  not  enjoyed 
by  producers  elsewhere.  The  development  of  the  American 
meat  industry  made  a  demand  for  cattle;  cattle  made  a  demand 
for  corn,  and  increased  its  price;  corn  land  rapidly  increased  in 
value,  and  with  it  all  have  come  better  farmers,  better  farming, 
and  a  more  prosperous  American  agriculture. 

The  cattle  business  of  today. — The  unknown  quantities  of 
shipping  and  marketing,  which  were  the  bugbear  of  the  cattle- 
man of  earlier  times,  have  been  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The 
producer  of  cattle  knows,  or  ought  to  know,  if  he  is  to  succeed 
in  his  business,  just  what  grade  his  cattle  will  be  classified  under 
when  they  come  before  the  buyer.  Each  class  has  its  own  price, 
varying  from  day  to  day  in  response  to  supply  and  demand. 
Daily  market  reports  put  the  producer  in  touch  with  conditions 
and  prices,  and  commission  men  advise  him  by  letter  whether 
it  is  a  good  time  or  a  bad  time  to  ship.  Whereas  charges  were 
formerly  uncertain,  now  they  are  definitely  fixed,  and  the  feeder 
can  figure  out  all  expenditures  to  the  cent  before  his  cattle  start 
for  market.  Railway  rates  are  much  lower  than  twenty-five 
years  ago,  transportation  is  more  direct  and  fast,  there  is  much 
less  cruelty  to  the  animals  in  transit,  less  loss  in  transit,  and 
less  shrink  between  feed-lot  and  market. 

Yardage  at  Chicago  is  30  cents  per  head  for  cattle  and  20 
cents  for  calves.  Hajr  is  $4fi  per  ton.  The  commission  charges 
for  selling  cattle  at  Chicagd  are  as  follows:  Cattle  in  car  lots, 
70  cents  per  head;  minimum  per  car  $14,  maximum  $18.  Calves 
in  car  lots,  30  cents  per  head;  single-deck  cars,  minimum  $14, 
maximum  $18;  double-deck  cars,  minimum  $20,  maximum  $23. 
Less  than  15  cattle  in  one  car,  $1  per  head.  Less  than  28  calves 
in  one  car,  50  cents  per  head. 

As  success  in  the  commission  business  rests  upon  soundness 
of  judgment,  honesty,  and  skill,  very  few  consignors  undertake 
to  do  their  own  selling,  but  do  it  more  profitably  through  the 
medium  of  the  commission  man.  Today  it  is  almost  entirely 
a  question  of  intelligence  and  industry  in  the  business  of  cattle 


84          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

breeding  and  feeding.  The  market  still  fluctuates,  to  be  sure, 
yet  not  in  the  violent  fashion  of  old,  and,  as  compared  with 
early  conditions,  certainty  has  displaced  uncertainty,  giving 
stability  and  foundation  to  a  great  permanent  cattle  industry. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
FASHIONS  IN  MARKET  CATTLE. 

England  and  America,  and  other  countries  inhabited  by 
English-speaking  people,  lead  in  meat  consumption,  especially 
in  beef  consumption.  "The  roast  beef  of  old  England"  is  well 
known  as  characteristic  of  the  Englishman's  culinary  tastes, 
but  Youatt  records  that  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  the  Eng- 
lish people  were  "strangers  to  beef  and  mutton."  The  con- 
sumption of  beef  was  confined  principally  to  the  summer  months, 
and  it  sold  at  a  very  low  price,  so  that  there  was  no  encourage- 
ment toward  the  production  of  beef  cattle  or  beef.  Instead, 
cattle  were  valued  for  milking  purposes  and  most  of  all  for  field 
labor,  and  not  until  they  had  served  a  number  of  years  as  draft 
animals  were  they  fattened  for  the  butcher.  Six-year-old  oxen 
were  sold  from  the  plow  to  be  fattened  and  then  brought  $50 
to  $75.  There  is  record  of  an  ox  that  was  worked  until  fifteen 
years  old  and  then  fattened  fairly  well.  Those  most  certainly 
were  not  days  when  men  talked  of  baby  beef.  Size,  usefulness 
for  field  labor,  and  for  dairy  purposes  were  the  qualities  chiefly 
sought.  Prior  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  there  was 
little  exercise  of  care  in  the  breeding  of  cattle,  and  feeding  was 
an  unknown  art.  But  conditions  gradually  became  better; 
England  became  more  prosperous  and  wealthy,  and  there  arose 
a  demand  for  more  and  better  beef,  for  which  higher  prices  were 
paid.  This  impetus  gave  rise  to  the  formation  of  the  breeds 
of  beef  cattle,  all  of  which  originated  in  England  and  Scotland, 
unless  we  consider  the  Polled  Shorthorn  and  Polled  Hereford  real 
American  breed  creations,  which,  of  course,  they  are  not,  being 
the  result  of  slight  modifications  of  English  breeds. 

When  beef  production  was  begun  in  earnest,  more  atten- 
tion was  given  to  size  and  quantity  than  to  quality.  Judging 
from  the  records  of  early  weights  of  cattle,  and  from  drawings 
made  at  that  time,  cattle  were  ponderous,  rough,  slow-maturing 
beasts,  and  very  patchy  with  great  lumps  of  tallow.  The  ideals 
of  those  days  were  exemplified  by  such  famous  animals  as  the 
Durham  Ox,  weighing  3,024  pounds  at  five  years  of  age,  and 
The  White  Heifer  That  Traveled,  weighing  2,300  pounds.  These 
were  early  Shorthorns.  Among  early  Hereford  cattle,  a  bull, 

85 


86          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  General,  weighed  3,640  pounds  at  six  years.  Another  bull, 
Wellington,  weighed  2,912  pounds,  had  a  girth  of  11  feet,  3 
inches,  and  measured  11  feet,  4  inches,  from  muzzle  to  tail-head. 
Another  Hereford  bull,  Hamlet,  weighed  2,800  pounds,  and  a 
steer  reached  2,912  pounds.  At  the  first  Smithfield  Fat  Stock 
Show  held  in  London  in  1799,  a  Hereford  bullock  described  as 
8  feet,  11  inches,  in  length,  6  feet,  7  inches,  in  height,  and  10  feet, 
4  inches,  in  girth,  won  first  prize  and  sold  for  $500.  Another  ox 
at  the  same  show  measured  7  feet  in  height,  and  12  feet,  4  inches, 
in  girth. 


Fig.  16.     Ideal  of  Early  Beef  Producers. 

The  noted  "White  Heifer  That  Travelled,"  a  Shorthorn,  calved  about 
1806;  bred  and  fed  by  Robert  Colling,  of  Barmpton,  near  Darlington,  in  the 
county  of  Durham,  England.  A  free-martin  heifer,  a  non-breeder,  fed  to  a 
weight  of  2300  pounds,  completely  finished,  and  publicly  exhibited  through 
the  principal  agricultural  counties  of  England  to  advertise  the  beef-making 
qualities  of  the  Shorthorn  breed,  particularly  the  herds  of  Charles  and  Robert 
Colling,  first  noted  improvers  of  the  breed.  From  an  engraving  made  when 
she  was  seven  years  old.  The  artist  has  undoubtedly  refined  the  head,  horns, 
and  bone  to  a  considerable  degree,  yet  the  picture  typifies  in  the  size,  massive- 
ness,  extreme  fatness,  and  small  bone  of  this  animal  the  ideals  of  early  beef 
producers. 

In  England  and  America  the  attainment  of  large  weights 
continued  to  be  the  aim  of  beef  producers  until  rather  recent 
times.  Early  maturity  was  not  given  much  attention.  It  was 
simply  a  matter  of  making  each  animal  as  large  as  possible 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          87 

before  consigning  it  to  the  butcher.  Cattle  were  grown  and 
fattened  cheaply  in  those  days,  and  the  advantages  of  young, 
quick-maturing,  highly-finished  cattle  were  not  so  marked,  nor 
was  a  good  price  offered  for  any  except  matured  beeves.  Stock- 
men at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  offered  $1,000  to  anyone  who  would 
deliver  a  bullock  weighing  4,000  pounds.  Prior  to  1856,  two 
Illinois  cattlemen  fed  one  hundred  head  of  high-grade  Short- 
horn steers  and  marketed  them  at  an  average  weight  of  1,965 
pounds.  About  the  same  time,  another  feeder  collected  a  lot 
of  one  hundred  grade  steers  and  fed  them  to  the  enormous 
average  of  2,377  pounds  as  four-year-olds.  These  feats  are  said 
to  have  widely  advertised  the  Shorthorn  as  a  beef-making  breed, 
the  paramount  consideration  of  cattle  feeders  at  that  time  being 
the  attainment  of  great  weight  and  immense  bulk. 

Fat-stock  shows  are,  in  most  respects,  criterions  of  market 
demands  in  cattle.  The  champions  of  early  days  were  big, 
matured  steers.  In  1891,  the  Chicago  Fat  Stock  Show  elimi- 
nated classes  for  three-year-old  cattle;  that  date  marked  the 
turning  point  toward  what  has  since  become  known  as  "baby 
beef."  In  1918  the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition  at 
Chicago  abolished  the  class  for  two-year-old  steers.  The  ten- 
dency is  more  and  more  toward  the  finishing  of  younger,  quicker- 
maturing  animals.  The  changes  that  are  being  wrought  are  not 
plainly  evident  unless  comparisons  are  made  extending  over  a 
period  of  years,  or  unless  the  operations  of  some  of  the  more 
progressive  feeders  have  been  followed  during  recent  times. 

Breeders  and  feeders  now  put  much  stress  on  quickness 
of  maturity.  This  they  have  secured  by  selecting  short-legged, 
blocky,  compact  animals,  which  type  reaches  maturity  much 
more  rapidly  than  the  long-legged,  more  rangy  type,  popular 
in  the  early  days.  Some  sacrifice  has  been  made  of  size  and 
weight  in  order  to  produce  a  type  that  will  make  beef  quickly, 
yet  the  better  breeders  are  careful  to  maintain  a  proper  degree 
of  size  along  with  the  low-set,  blocky  type  of  body.  The  change 
has  been  vastly  beneficial  to  the  breeder,  feeder,  butcher,  and 
ultimate  consumer. 

Baby  beef  are  choice  and  prime  fat  cattle,  between  12  and 
20  months  of  age,  weighing  800  to  1000  pounds.  .Yearlings 
make  25  to  50  per  cent,  more  meat  for  the  grain  consumed  than 
the  same  animals  would  make  if  kept  until  two  or  three  years 
of  age.  The  small,  compact  carcasses  cut  up  with  less  waste, 
and  furnish  thick,  light  steaks  such  as  are  most  in  demand,  be- 


88 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


cause  they  are  cheaper  and  of  a  size  adapted  for  domestic  use. 
Such  cattle  will  not  dress  out  quite  as  high  as  older  cattle,  but 
the  difference  in  percentage  yield  of  carcass  is  due  to  a  greater 
amount  of  tallow  in  the  older  animal,  which  materially  lessens 
the  older  animal's  superiority  in  this  regard.  The  production 
of  baby  beef  necessitates  starting  the  fattening  process  at  birth 
and  carrying  it  on  simultaneously  with  growth;  the  animal 
receives  full  feed  from  start  to  finish.  As  stated  by  the  Breeder's 
Gazette:  "The  making  of  baby  beef  is  a  continuous  performance 
which  shows  365  days  in  the  ordinary  year  and  366  days  in  the 


Fig.  17.     Prime  Baby  Beef. 


Hereford  steer,  Peerless  Wilton  39th's  Defender,  Grand  Champion  at 
the  International  Live  Stock  Show  in  1906.  Bred,  fed,  and  exhibited  by 
Mr.  F.  A.  Nave,  Attica,  Ind. 

leap  year.  It  is  readily  observable  that  there  is  no  such  thing 
as  'warming-up'  or  'short-feeding'  calves  intended  for  the  buyers 
of  prime  baby  beef.  Cattle  may  be  16  to  18  months  of  age  and 
afterward  warmed  up  a  bit,  but  they  will  not  class  as  baby 
beef  and  they  will  not  bring  the  prices  of  that  article." 

Baby  beef  can  only  be  produced  from  well-bred  calves,  as 
only  well-bred  ones  mature  early  enough  to  meet  the  market 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


89 


requirements  for  this  kind  of  cattle.  Such  calves  are  hard  to 
buy  and  the  producer  of  baby  beef  cannot  feel  assured  of  obtain- 
ing them  season  after  season  by  purchase,  but  is  practically 
compelled  to  breed  them  for  his  own  use.  As  breeding  and 
feeding  are  rather  distinct  lines  of  enterprise,  and  as  few  feeders 
care  to  maintain  a  breeding  herd,  or  have  facilities  for  doing  so, 
baby  beef  production  is  much  less  followed  than  would  be  the 
case  if  good  calves  were  readily  available.  Furthermore,  it  has 
been  shown  that  only  those  feeders  skilled  in  the  art  of  finishing 
cattle,  and  fully  equipped  to  give  the  animals  every  chance, 
can  successfully  produce  baby  beef. 


Fig.  18.     Baby  Beeves  on  Feed. 

Grade  Hereford  calves  in  the  feed-lot  of  E.  M.  Cassady  &  Sons,  Whit- 
ing, la. 

As  long  as  thin  two-  and  three-year-old  steers  may  be  pur- 
chased for  feeding,  there  will  be  no  marked  increases  in  baby 
beef  production.  The  time  is  now  at  hand,  however,  when  a 
large  percentage  of  beef  cattle  must  not  only  be  fed  on  the  farms 
of  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  valleys,  but  bred  there  also. 
As  it  is  no  longer  profitable  for  the  farmer  to  first  grow  a  steer 
and  then  fatten  him,  the  growing  and  fattening  processes  must 


90          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

be  combined,  and  the  cattle  sent  to  market  under  24  months  of 
age;  in  other  words,  beef  production  must  be  placed  very  largely 
on  a  baby  beef  basis. 

Clay,  Robinson  &  Co.,  of  Chicago,  in  a  communication  to 
the  writer,  had  the  following  to  say  concerning  baby  beef  pro- 
duction: "There  has  been  marked  increase  in  the  production 
of  this  class  of  cattle  for  the  reason  that  the  public  demands 
them.  For  years  the  tendency  has  been  toward  the  maturing 
of  cattle  at  a  younger  and  younger  age.  It  was  not  so  many 
years  ago  when  an  animal  was  not  considered  ready  for  the  mar- 
ket under  four  years  old,  but  evolution  in  beef  production  started, 
and  the  most  desirable  beeves  in  the  market  today  are  prime, 
fat  yearlings." 

The  above  quotation  is  good  evidence  of  the  buyer's  atti- 
tude toward  baby  beef.  As  showing  the  possibilities  for  profit 
to  the  producer  of  such  cattle,  the  Kansas  Station  fed  130  grade 
Shorthorn,  Hereford,  and  Angus  calves  that  had  just  been 
weaned,  and  during  seven  months'  feeding  secured  an  average 
monthly  gain  of  56  pounds  per  head.  The  average  weight  at 
the  beginning  was  408  pounds;  when  sent  to  market  seven  months 
later,  the  average  weight  was  800  pounds,  and  the  age  was  a 
little  over  one  year.  All  except  32  head  were  heifers.  The 
remarkable  feature  of  this  demonstration  was  the  small  amount 
of  feed  consumed.  It  required  only  503  pounds  of  grain  and 
509  pounds  of  hay  to  make  100  pounds  gain  in  weight.  The 
best  record  was  made  by  10  skim-milk  calves  that  were  fed  alfalfa 
hay  and  corn.  They  consumed  only  439  pounds  of  grain  and 
436  pounds  of  hay  for  every  100  pounds  of  gain.  When  older 
cattle  are  fed,  it  usually  requires  about  twice  these  amounts  of 
grain  and  roughage  to  secure  100  pounds  of  gain. 

E.  M.  Cassady  &  Sons,  of  Whiting,  Iowa,  made  a  test  of 
the  cost  and  rate  of  gains  made  by  Hereford  steers  started  on 
feed  as  calves  and  yearlings.  These  steers  were  of  the  same 
breeding,  having  been  bred  on  the  Cassady  farm  from  the  same 
sire  and  dams.  The  calves  weighed  475  pounds  when  put  on 
feed,  and  were  charged  at  $6.00  per  cwt.;  the  yearlings  weighed 
775  pounds,  and  were  charged  at  $5.70  per .  cwt.  Although 
the  calves  were  fed  for  a  longer  period  than  the  yearlings,  th3 
average  cost  of  100  pounds  of  gain  was  $10.80  for  the  calves, 
as  compared  with  $15.65  for  the  yearlings.  The  calves  made  a 
profit  of  $20.00  per  head,  and  the  yearlings  made  a  profit  of 
$14.00. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


91 


In  three  years  work,  including  three  trials,  the  Indiana 
Experiment  Station  found  that  when  feed  prices  were  such  that 
it  cost  $7.74  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  on  baby  beeves,  it 
cost  $9.09  to  make  the  same  gain  on  yearlings,  and  $9.37  on 
two-year-olds. 

Steer  and  Heifer  Beef. 

The  heading  of  this  chapter,  "Fashions  in  Market  Cattle," 
implies  that  the  demands  of  the  cattle  market  are  subject  to 
change.  The  truth  of  this  has  been  shown  by  the  preceding 
discussion  of  the  trend  away  from  the  old-time,  heavy,  matured 


Fig.  19.     Prime  Fat  Heifer. 

beeves,  and  toward  the  finishing  of  younger  cattle.  The  word, 
"fashions,"  also  implies  that  the  market  indulges  in  some  prac- 
tices that  are  not  entirely  utilitarian  and  practical,  but  are  more 
or  less  fanciful  and  whimsical.  That  this  is  true  will  be  shown 
by  a  consideration  of  the  cattle  market's  discrimination  against 
fat  heifers  as  compared  with  fat  steers.  When  the  heifer  is 
well  fed,  she  is  consigned  to  a  lower  class  than  a  steer  of  the 
same  breeding,  same  fatness,  same  quality,  same  age  and  form. 
In  some  countries,  heifers  outsell  steers  for  beef  purposes.  In 
this  country  there  is  discrimination  in  price  against  heifers  on 
the  market,  and  for  that  reason  heifers  are  rarely  as  well  fed  as 
steers. 


92 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


In  September,  1892,  Wilson  and  Curtiss,  of  the  Iowa  Ex- 
periment Station,*  purchased  five  steers  and  ten  heifers  and 
began  an  experiment  to  determine  whether  a  discrimination 
against  fat  heifers  is  justifiable.  All  of  these  cattle  were  year- 
ling grade  Shorthorns,  all  sired  by  the  same  bull.  Five  of  the 
heifers  were  spayed  soon  after  purchase,  and  all  fifteen  head 
were  roughed  until  January  4,  1893,  when  they  were  grain-fed 
for  eleven  months,  and  then  shipped  to  Chicago.  There  they 
were  sold  on  the  open  market  to  Swift  &  Co.,  who  made  slaughter 
and  block  tests  of  the  animals.  The  results  of  the  experiment 
are  condensed  into  the  following  table: 


Weights,  costs,  gains,  prices,  yields,  profits. 

5 

Steers 

5 
Open 
heifers 

5 

Spayed 
heifers 

Original  weight,  September  12th,  Ibs  
Cost,  per  lb.,  cents  

4005. 
3  5 

3455. 

2 

3998. 
2 

Total  cost  

$140  18 

$  69  10 

$  79  96 

Cost  of  pasture  and  fodder  prior  to  January  4th.  .    . 

20.00 

20.00 

20.00 

Weight,  January  4th,  Ibs    . 

4093 

3592 

3994 

Average  gain  on  feed  per  animal  per  day,  Ibs  . 

2  44 

1  99 

2  07 

Total  gain  . 

4032 

3288 

3416 

Average  cost  feed  per  lb.  gain,  cents  

5.02 

6.04 

5  86 

Total  cost  feed 

$202  47 

$198  70 

$200  32 

Shrink  in  shipping,  Ibs 

215 

290 

280 

Selling  weight,  Ibs  . 

7910 

6590 

7130 

Selling  price  per  lb.,  cents 

5  75 

4  75 

4  75 

Selling  price,  total 

$454  82 

$313  02 

$338  67 

Freight,  yardage,  and  commission 

24  71 

24  71 

24  71 

Profit  . 

67  46 

51 

13  68 

Beef  (warm  weight)  ,  Ibs  
Dressing  percentage 

4997. 
63  2 

4110. 
62  4 

4475. 
62  8 

Total  tallow,  Ibs  . 

969  5 

648  75 

701  5 

10  loins,  per  cent,  of  carcass  

16.7 

17.6 

17  7 

10  loins,  price  per  lb.,  cents  

15. 

13  5 

13  5 

10  ribs  per  cent,  of  carcass  

10.1 

10.8 

10  9 

10  ribs,  price  per  lb.,  cents  

15. 

13.5 

13.5 

10  rounds,  per  cent,  of  carcass 

24  1 

21  5 

21  7 

10  rounds,  price  per  lb.,  cents  

6. 

5.75 

5.65 

Margin  between  live  cost  and  sales  of  meat  and  by- 
products, not  including  expense  of  killing  and 
handling         .         

$  20  45 

$  58  12 

$  64  84 

The  returns  made  by  the  heifers  to  Swift  &  Co.  would 
have  justified  a  purchase  price  of  $5.37  per  cwt.  for  the  spayed 
heifers  and  $5.32  for  the  open  heifers,  instead  of  $4.75  for  each, 
and  still  have  left  the  same  margin  of  profit  as  in  the  steers.  It 
is  clear,  then,  that  the  difference  in  the  live-weight  value  of  the 


*  la.  Bui.  24. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        -  93 

steers  and  heifers  was  only  about  40  cents  per  cwt.,  instead  of 
$1.00  a  cwt.  made  by  the  buyers.  Expert  opinions  secured 
from  Chicago  packers  as  to  why  the  heifer  carcasses  sold  at  less 
price  per  pound  than  the  steer  carcasses  were  to  the  effect  that 
heifers  make  more  fat  where  the  steers  make  lean  meat.  There 
is  said  to  be  more  lean  meat  in  a  steer  loin  and  a  larger  tender- 
loin. Otherwise,  the  carcasses  were  said  to  be  of  equal  value. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  Englishmen  make  no  discrim- 
inations against  heifer  beef,  indeed  they  pay  more  for  it  than 
for  steer  beef.  Wilson  and  Curtiss  corresponded  with  several 
Englishmen  concerning  this  matter,  and  the  substance  of  the 
replies  was  that  heifers  yield  meat  of  finer  grain  and  better 
quality,  are  good  cutters,  and  yield  little  rough  meat.  Rib 
and  loin  cuts  from  spayed  heifer  carcasses  were  valued  two 
cents  per  pound  higher  than  the  same  cuts  from  steer  carcasses 
equally  well  fattened.  Plate  cuts  from  heifers  were  valued 
one  cent  higher.  Heifer  beef  was  said  to  be  better  marbled, 
more  pleasing  in  appearance,  more  juicy,  and  more  palatable. 

In  1894,  the  Iowa  Station*  conducted  a  second  experiment 
with  steers  and  spayed  and  open  heifers.  The  same  plan  was 
followed  as  in  the  first  experiment  and  the  results  were  prac- 
tically the  same,  thus  verifying  the  results  of  the  first  test. 

Evidently  English  and  American  standards  for  meats  vary 
somewhat,  and  public  preference  has  been  cultivated  along 
different  lines  in  the  two  countries.  So  far  as  our  American 
markets  are  concerned,  it  seems  that  the  difference  in  prices 
paid  for  fat  steers  and  heifers  may  not  be  justified  by  any  real 
difference  in  the  cuts  of  meat,  yet  the  condition  must  be  accepted 
nevertheless,  and  producers  must  shape  their  operations  accord- 
ingly. There  is,  however,  one  logical  objection  to  heifers;  it 
is  that  they  are  frequently  pregnant,  which  lowers  the  dressing 
percentage  and  may  affect  the  value  of  the  carcass.  At  the 
present  time  the  discrimination  against  heifers  amounts  to 
50  or  75  cents  per  cwt.  for  open  heifers,  and  about  25  cents  per 
cwt.  in  the  case  of  spayed  heifers.  There  is  not  as  much  dis- 
crimination in  price  against  fat  young  heifers  as  against  fat 
heifers  of  older  age. 

The  question  of  spaying. — As  the  experiment  just  dis- 
cussed dealt  with  spayed  and  open  heifers,  a  word  may  be  said 
here  about  the  comparative  merits  of  the  two  from  the  stand- 

*  la.  Bui.  33. 


94  TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

point  of  the  feeder.  As  a  rule,  open  heifers  make  greater  gains 
because  of  the  setback  caused  by  the  operation  of  spaying.  Once 
recovered  from  the  operation,  the  spayed  heifers  gain  faster, 
but  do  not  reach  as  large  weights  as  open  heifers.  The  recur- 
rence of  heat  in  open  heifers  and  their  restlessness  at  that  time 
retards  the  gains  made,  as  compared  with  spayed  heifers  re- 
covered from  the  operation.  Spayed  heifers  are  said  to  yield 
beef  of  slightly  higher  quality.  Spaying  entails  a  certain  expense 
and  there  is  danger  of  mortality.  The  general  practice  is  not 
to  spay  when  it  is  possible  to  separate  the  heifers  and  feed  them 
in  a  lot  by  themselves.  When  it  is  desired  to  feed  heifers  along 
with  steers,  it  is  desirable  that  they  be  spayed,  otherwise  the 
recurrence  of  heat  causes  considerable  commotion  among  the 
cattle,  decreasing  the  gains  made  and  increasing  the  cost. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
SELECTION  OF  FEEDER  STEERS. 

Beef  producers  may  be  divided  into  two  groups — (1)  men 
who  grow  beef,  and  (2)  cattle  feeders.  In  the  first  group  are 
those  who  maintain  breeding  herds  for  the  production  of  steers 
for  the  market.  This  group  includes  the  western  cattle  man  on 
the  range  and  also  the  farmer  who  keeps  a  small  herd  of  beef 
cows.  The  beef  grower  has  a  year-round  job.  Furthermore, 
he  usually  follows  the  business  steadily  for  a  period  of  years. 
The  very  nature  of  the  business  demands  that  it  be  established 
on  a  permanent  basis.  It  cannot  be  followed  one  year,  given 
up  the  next  year,  and  begun  again  the  next,  with  any  fair  expec- 
tation of  profits.  The  second  group  includes  those  who  follow 
the  practice  of  buying  thin  cattle  to  be  fattened.  This  is  simply 
a  finishing  process,  and  is  more  speculative  in  character  than 
that  of  growing  beef.  It  may  be  followed  intermittently,  although 
most  successful  feeders  are  in  the  business  regularly  each  year. 
Furthermore,  in  the  cornbelt  states,  where  grain  feeding  is  prac- 
ticed, it  is  usually  limited  to  a  few  months  of  the  year  and  usually 
to  those  months  when  other  farm  work  is  slack. 

In  an  investigation  of  methods  of  marketing  live  stock  and 
meats,  made  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture*  in  1915, 
reports  were  received  from  2072  special  live-stock  and  price 
reporters  of  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates  which  indicated  that 
74  per  cent,  of  stockers  and  feeders  are  bought  in  the  fall,  19 
per  cent,  in  the  spring,  3  per  cent,  in  the  summer,  and  4  per 
cent,  in  the  winter.  It  was  also  indicated  that  55  per  cent,  of 
stocker  and  feeder  cattle  purchased  are  bought  in  the  district 
in  which  they  are  fed  or  grazed,  27  per  cent,  at  the  centralized 
markets,  and  18  per  cent,  in  the  country,  other  than  locally. 

As  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  cornbelt  beef  grower 
finds  baby  beef  production  profitable.  On  his  high-priced  land 
he  cannot  afford  to  raise  steers  to  two  years  old  or  older  and 
then  fatten  them.  The  cornbelt  cattle  feeder,  however,  is  not 
bound  by  the  same  rules.  He  usually  buys  western  steers 
raised  on  cheaper  lands,  and  so  long  as  thin  two-  and  three-year  - 


*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Report  113,  p.  17. 

95 


96 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


old  steers  may  be  bought  at  prices  low  enough  to  make  them 
profitable,  the  feeder  will  continue  to  make  use  of  them  as  well 
as  of  calves  and  yearlings. 

Profits  in  cattle  feeding  come  from  skill  in  feeding  and 
management,  and  also  from  intelligent  buying  and  selling.  There 
is  practiced  what  is  known  as  "speculative  cattle  feeding"  in 
which  feeders  emphasize  the  buying  and  selling  more  than  they 
do  the  actual  feeding  of  the  animals,  the  object  being  to  buy 
on  a  low  market  and  sell  when  the  market  is  high.  Omitting 
this  speculative  feature  from  consideration,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  sources  of  profit  in  feeding  a  steer  are  (1)  the  increase  in 


Fig.  20.     Fancy  Selected  Feeders. 

weight  of  the  animal,  and  (2)  the  increase  in  the  value  of  the 
animal's  initial  weight.  For  example,  if  we  buy  a  thin  steer 
at  8  cents  per  pound,  and  fatten  him  during  four  or  six  months 
feeding,  we  increase  not  only  his  weight,  but  also  his  value  per 
pound.  If  the  initial  weight  was  1000  pounds,  and  the  final 
weight  was  1325  pounds,  he  should  sell  at  10  cents  per  pound 
without  any  rise  of  the  cattle  market  during  the  feeding  period. 
Then  the  net  income  to  the  feeder  would  be  as  follows: 


325  pounds  at  lOc 
1000  pounds  at    2c 


.$32.50 
.  20.00 


Net  income .  .  $52 . 50 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          97 

The  difference  between  the  cost  price  and  selling  price  per 
pound  is  spoken  of  as  the  "margin."  The  steer  feeder  counts 
on  at  least  2  cents  per  pound  margin,  and  when  cattle  and  feed- 
stuffs  are  very  high  in  price  a  greater  margin  is  necessary.  As 
shown  by  the  above  calculation,  heavy  cattle  may  be  handled 
on  narrower  margins  than  light  ones,  for  if  the  initial  weight  of 
the  steer  had  been  600  pounds  instead  of  1000  pounds,  other 
factors  remaining  the  same,  then  the  net  income  would  have 
been  less  by  $8.00.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  younger 
steer  would  probably  make  his  325  pounds  of  gain  somewhat 
cheaper  than  the  older  steer,  thus  compensating,  in  part  at 
least,  the  advantage  of  the  older  animal. 

Success  in  fattening  cattle  requires  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  two  classes  of  cattle — fat  steers  of  the  better  grades,  and 
stockers  and  feeders, — the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  feeding 
process.  The  cattle  feeder  must  be  an  expert  judge  of  a  thin 
animal,  as  well  as  a  good  judge  of  the  finished  product.  "Well 
bought  is  half  sold."  Failure  to  select  the  right  kind  of  steers 
for  feeding  is  alone  sufficient  to  cause  failure  in  the  business. 
The  cattle  feeder  must  have  a  good  knowledge  of  the  values  of 
the  various,  grades  of  feeders,  and  must  use  judgment  as  to 
whether  or  not  to  buy,  and  if  he  buys  it  is  again  a  matter  of 
judgment  as  to  which  grade  of  feeders  may  be  purchased,  fed, 
and  sold  with  the  greatest  profit.  The  actual  buying,  however, 
is  usually  put  in  the  hands  of  a  commission  firm;  such  firms 
also  freely  and  intelligently  advise  the  purchaser  concerning 
the  matters  here  discussed. 

The  points  which  determine  the  value  of  feeder  steers  are 
age  and  weight,  form,  quality,  constitution  and  thrift,  natural 
fleshing,  condition,  breeding,  disposition,  style,  and  uniformity. 
Each  of  these  is  briefly  discussed. 

1.  Age  and  weight. — Calves  and  yearlings  require  a  longer 
feeding  period,  as  a  rule,  than  two-  or  three-year-old  steers. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  young  animals  grow  while  they  fatten, 
and  hence  fatten  more  slowly  than  older  animals.  Most  cattle 
feeders  prefer  two-  and  three-year-old  steers  for  feeding  pur- 
poses, and  this  is  especially  true  where  a  "short  feed"  of  from 
60  to  90  days  is  given.  For  the  "long  feed"  of  120  to  180  days  or 
more,  calves  and  yearlings  may  be  satisfactory  if  carefully 
selected  and  properly  handled.  Some  feeders  prefer  the  older 
steers  even  for  the  longer  feed.  The  common  practice  is  to 
buy  feeders  that  weigh  from  900  to  1000  pounds,  or  even  heavier. 


98          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Such  steers  are  18  months  old,  or  over.  A  thrifty  steer,  well 
developed  for  his  age  is  usually  more  profitable  than  a  stunted 
animal. 

A  considerable  amount  of  experimental  work  has  been  done 
to  determine  the  relative  advantages  in  feeding  calves,  year- 
lings, and  two-year-olds  at  the  Kansas,  South  Dakota,  Missouri, 
Iowa,  Illinois,  and  Indiana  experiment  stations.  These  experi- 
ments have  been  based  entirely  upon  the  finishing  period  or, 
in  other  words,  have  been  planned  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
cattle  feeder  rather  than  the  grower,  and  the  results  indicate 
that  under  present  conditions  it  is  more  profitable  to  feed  two- 
year-old  cattle  than  calves.  This  conclusion  is  based  upon 
the  difficulty  of  securing  calves  of  the  type,  breeding,  and  quality 
necessary  for  fattening  at  an  early  age,  the  greater  margin  be- 
tween buying  and  selling  prices,  the  shorter  feeding  period, 
more  rapid  gains,  greater  production  of  pork  from  hogs  following 
the  cattle,  smaller  proportion  of  grain  to  roughage,  and  broader 
demand  for  finished  heavy  steers. 

In  three  different  trials  at  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station* 
the  calves  required  90  days  and  the  yearlings  20  days  longer 
feeding  period  than  the  two-year-olds,  to  make  them  prime. 
The  average  daily  gain  of  the  calves  was  .61  pound  per  head  less 
than  that  of  the  two-year-olds  and  .34  pound  less  than  that  of 
the  yearlings.  The  following  conclusions  were  drawn  from  the 
Indiana  experiments: 

1.  The  initial  cost  per  cwt.  of  calves  is  greater  than  that 
of  older  cattle. 

2.  The  length  of  time  necessary  for  finishing  steers  de- 
creases with  increased  age  of  the  cattle. 

3.  The  rate  of  gain  and  the  cost  of  gain  increases  with 
the  increased  age  of  the  cattle. 

4.  The  proportion  of  roughage  to  concentrates  consumed 
increases  with  the  increased  age  of  the  cattle. 

5.  The  amount  of  gain  necessary  in  finishing  cattle  of 
equal  condition  decreases  as  their  age  increases. 

6.  The  difference  in  total  quantity  of  feed  necessary  for 
finishing  cattle  of  different  ages  and  fed  to  the  same  marketable 
finish  is  negligible. 

7.  The  calves  made  an  average  'profit  of  $4.25  per  head, 
the  yearlings  $6.43,  and  the  two-year-olds  $7.95. 


*Ind.  Bui.  146. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          99 

8.  The  increase  in  live  weight  necessary  to  make  calves 
prime  was  103  per  cent.;  yearlings,  54  per  cent.;  and  two-year- 
olds  43.6  per  cent,  of  their  initial  weights  at  the  beginning  of 
the  feeding  period. 

9.  The  difference  in  cost  of  one  hundred  pounds  of  gain 
between  calves  and  yearlings  was  $1.35  in  favor  of  the  calves; 
between  yearlings  and  two-year-olds,  28  cents  in  favor  of  the 
yearlings. 

10.  The  experienced  farmer  who  feeds  cattle  should  handle 
older  cattle  in  preference  to  calves,  while  the  farmer  who  pro- 
duces and  finishes  his  own  cattle  may  find  calves  profitable. 

The  Missouri  Experiment  Station*  drew  the  following  con- 
clusions from  feeding  300  cattle  of  various  ages  on  heavy  grain 
rations  in  connection  with  bluegrass  pasture: 

1.  Two-year-old  cattle  make  larger  average  daily  gains 
than  yearlings. 

2.  Two-year-old  cattle  consumed  from  13  to  22  per  cent, 
more  grain  per  day  per  head  than  did  yearlings. 

3.  Two-year-old  cattle  consumed  more  grain  per  day  per 
thousand  pounds  live  weight  than  yearlings. 

4.  Yearlings  require  less  grain  for  each  pound  of  gain  than 
do  two-  or  three-year-old  cattle.     Other  things  being  equal,  the 
younger  the  animal,  the  less  grain  is  required  to  make  a  pound 
of  gain.     The  condition  of  the  animal  at  the  beginning  of  the 
feeding  period  is  an  important  factor,  and  may  to  a  large  extent 
counteract  the  influence  of  age  in  determining  cheaper   gains. 

5.  In  these  investigations,  the  fattening  of  two-  and  three- 
year-old  cattle  has  been  generally  more  profitable  than  fatten- 
ing yearlings.    The  chief  reasons  are: 

(a)  The  margin  between  the  buying  and  selling  price  is 
less  in  the  case  of  yearlings.     The  older  cattle  fatten  in  a  shorter 
period. 

(b)  It  is  not  generally  advisable  to  try  to  finish  the  cheaper 
grades  of  yearlings.     In  our  investigations,  the  quality  of  the 
yearlings  has  generally  been  higher  than  that  of  the  older  cattle. 
In  spite  of  this  fact,  the  financial  results  have  seemed  to  favor 
the  feeding  of  older  cattle. 

When  all  evidence  as  to  the  comparative  merits  of  calves, 
yearlings,  and  older  cattle  for  feeding  purposes  is  summed  up, 
the  outstanding  points  are  as  follows: 

*  Mo.  Bui.  90. 


100         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

1.  Young  animals,  which  are  fattened  as  they  grow,  make 
cheaper  gains  than  older  animals.     This  is  the  chief  advantage 
of  the  young  animal. 

2.  The  older  animals  enjoy  a  wider  margin  between  cost 
price  and  selling  price  per  pound,  they  fatten  in  less  time,  and 
the  cost  of  feed  per  head  is  practically  the  same  as  for  the  younger 
animals.     These  are  the  chief  advantages  of  the  older  animal. 

In  the  investigations  which  have  been  made  by  our  state 
experiment  stations,  the  advantages  of  the  older  animal  out- 
weighed the  advantage  of  the  younger  animal,  making  the  two- 
year-olds  more  profitable  than  the  yearlings  or  calves.  Fur- 
thermore, a  table  of  costs  and  prices  does  not  fully  emphasize 
the  marked  ability  of  the  older  animal  to  consume  roughage 
during  the  fattening  period.  Where  considerable  quantities 
of  silage,  hay,  or  other  roughage  must  be  utilized,  and  this  is 
very  frequently  the  case,  older  steers  are  desirable.  Neverthe- 
less, in  some  instances  and  in  certain  years  the  younger  animals 
may  be  preferable.  For  example,  with  higher  cost  of  older 
steers,  and  lower  price  of  feeds,  calves  may  be  purchased  and 
fed  at  a  greater  profit.  Another  point  which  is  frequently  of 
practical  importance  is  the  fact  that  the  initial  cost  of  calves 
per  head  is  much  less  than  that  of  older  cattle.  Three  or  four 
calves  may  be  bought  for  the  price  of  one  two-year-old  steer, 
and  the  feed-lot  may  be  filled  at  a  much  smaller  outlay  of  capital. 
For  this  reason,  some  farmers  must  feed  calves  if  they  are  to 
feed  at  all. 

2.  Form. — The  form  should  be  as  nearly  identical  as  pos- 
sible with  the  description  given  for  the  fat  steer.  Allowances 
must,  of  course,  be  made  for  the  absence  of  fat  in  the  thin  animal, 
for  we  cannot  expect  a  thin  steer  to  appear  extremely  blocky 
and  low  set.  Yet  even  in  thin  condition  the  steer  should  be 
low  set,  deep,  broad,  compact,  and  balanced;  such  conformation 
insures  feeding  capacity  and  early  maturity.  Broad,  level  tops 
make  possible  a  maximum  development  of  high-priced  cuts,  and 
are  indicative  of  superior  form  in  the  feeder.  High-grade  feeders 
have  a  straight  top  line  and  straight  underline,  the  two  being 
nearly  parallel.  For  best  results,  a  large  feeding  capacity  is 
of  very  great  importance.  The  muzzle  should  be  broad,  the 
barrel  wide  and  deep,  and  the  flanks  well  let  down.  An  excess- 
ive paunch  is  undesirable,  as  it  rarely  disappears  during  fattening 
and  shipping  and  will  lessen  the  price  paid  for  the  finished  steer 
on  the  market.  Some  degree  of  paunchiness  may  be  termed 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


101 


a  good  fault  in  a  feeder,  but  the  best  feeders  have  much  depth 
and  fullness  of  middle  without  being  objectionably  paunchy. 
The  feeder  should  have  as  much  smoothness  as  is  consistent 
with  thinness.  Too  great  prominence  of  shoulder,  hips,  and 
tail-head  should  be  avoided.  There  should  be  nothing  in  his 
form  that  will  prevent  a  high  degree  of  smoothness  being  secured 
when  he  is  fattened.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  propor- 
tions of  the  head  and  neck  correspond  with  the  type  of  body, 
and  in  making  selections  of  young  thin  cattle  these  are  depend- 
able indicators  of  the  turn  the  form  will  take  during  development 
and  finishing. 

The  head  demands  far  more  attention  in  the  feeder  than  in 
the  finished  steer.     We  look  for  what  is  termed  the  "feeder's 


Fig.  21.     An  Average  Load  of  Steers  on  Feed. 

head,"  that  is,  a  head  of  much  width  between  the  eyes,  short 
and  clean-cut  from  eyes  to  muzzle,  very  broad  at  the  muzzle, 
but  not  coarse,  large  of  nostril,  and  strongly  muscled  and  well 
developed  in  cheeks  and  jaws.  The  eye  should  be  large,  prom- 
inent, bright,  clear,  and  placid.  Polled  or  dehorned  cattle  are 
preferred  by  feeders,  although  this  feature  does  not  affect  the 
grading  of  the  animal  on  the  market.  More  hornless  cattle 
can  be  put  in  the  feed-lot  or  car,  and  they  make  more  rapid 
gains  on  feed  because  of  less  commotion  and  less  difficulty  in 
getting  up  to  the  feed-racks.  Hornless  cattle  shrink  less  in 
shipment,  the  carcasses  show  fewer  bruises,  and  the  hides  are 
more  valuable.  Being  in  greater  demand,  they  sell  at  slightly 
higher  prices.  Dehorning  gives  cattle  a  setback,  causes  wild- 


102        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

ness  for  a  time,  and  is  not  advisable  if  cattle  are  to  be  put  on 
feed  immediately,  except  in  the  case  of  calves  or  yearlings  that 
are  to  be  given  a  long  feed. 

3.  Quality. — The  indications  of  quality  in  beef  cattle  have 
been  discussed.    Quality  and  good  breeding  are  usually  found 
in  company,  and  good  breeding  surely  "tells"  in  the  feed-lot. 
Quality  also  insures  smoothness  and  a  higher  dressing  percentage, 
points  of  much  importance  in  the  eyes  of  the  buyer  of  fat  cattle. 
Coarse,  staggy  heads  and  necks  indicate  late  castration.    Stags 
sell  at  a  discount  on  the  fat  steer  market. 

4.  Constitution  and  thrift. — A  wide,  deep  chest,  full  heart- 
girth,  and  deep,  broad  body  are  evidences  of  a  strong  constitu- 
tion.   Avoid  that  steer  which  has  quality  carried  to  the  point 
of  delicacy,  as  only  vigorous,  rugged  cattle  make  big  gains  on 
feed.    When  choosing  between  two  steers,  one  of  which  is  too 
refined  in  head,  hide,  and  bone,  and  the  other  a  trifle  too  rugged, 
or  what  might  be  termed  slightly  on  the  coarse  order,  it  will 
usually  be  wisest  to  select  the  more  rugged  steer;  he  will  usually 
consume  more  feed,  gain  more  consistently,  and  make  his  gains 
at  less  cost  than  will  the  over-refined  animal. 

A  thrifty,  healthy  steer  makes  known  the  fact  in  a  bright, 
clear  eye,  sleek  coat  of  hair,  and  a  loose,  sappy  hide.  He  is 
wide  awake  and  gives  evidence  that  he  "feels  good."  Avoid 
the  steer  with  the  small,  dull  eye,  tight  hide,  dry,  staring  coat, 
hanging  head,  and  lifeless  gait.  Red  blood  and  good  health 
indicate  ability  to  assimilate  feed  and  make  gains. 

5.  Natural  fleshing. — This  refers  to  lean  meat  or  muscle. 
As  previously  pointed  out,  feeding  does  not  add  muscle  to  an 
animal;  the  muscle  must  be  born  on  the  steer.     The  cattle 
feeder's  job  is  to  fatten  beef,  and  he  must  buy  the  beef  or  muscle 
when  he  buys  his  steers.     Look  for  muscular  necks,   backs, 
loins,   and   rounds.     Such   steers  bring  the   best   prices   when 
properly  fattened. 

6.  Condition  counts  in  judging  feeders.     The  more  fat  a 
feeder  steer  carries,  the  quicker  and  cheaper  he  may  be  finished. 
Other  things  being  equal,  fleshy  feeders  are  more  desirable  than 
very  thin  ones.     Furthermore,  if  the  steer  is  too  thin  he  cannot 
class  as  a  feeder,  but  instead  is  classed  as  a  stocker."    Stockers 
are  thin  enough  to  make  gains  in  condition  on  grass  or  roughage. 
Feeders  carry  more  flesh  and  are  ready  for  the  feed-lot.     Exper- 
ienced cattle  men  buy  as  much  condition  as  possible  when  they 
buy  their  feeders. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         103 

7.  Breeding. — Steers  of  good  beef  breeding  are  much  pre- 
ferred over  those  which  have  more  or  less  of  a  scrub  or  dairy 
ancestry.  We  look  for  evidences  of  beef  breeding  in  the  form, 
quality,  fleshing,  and  color  of  the  animals.  The  beef-bred 
animal  is  more  rectangular  in  build,  more  compact  and  blocky, 
and  lower  set  than  the  dairy-bred  steer.  The  steer  of  beef 
breeding  is  plumper  and  thicker  in  his  muscles  throughout. 
The  dairy-bred  steer  stands  high  off  the  ground,  has  a  long, 
narrow  head,  cuts  up  in  the  flank,  is  split  up  in  the  twist,  cat- 
hammed,  and  rough  in  conformation  over  the  hips  and  rump. 
His  bone  is  usually  too  fine,  and  his  hide  too  thin  and  "papery" 
in  texture.  Coarse,  rough  steers,  with  coarse,  plain  heads,  show 
lack  of  good  ancestry.  The  wide,  short,  clean-cut  head,  with 


Fig.  22.     Fancy  Feeder  Calves. 

broad  muzzle,  good  eye,  and  marked  indications  of  what  is  often 
termed  "character,"  may  be  accepted  as  one  of  the  very  best 
evidences  not  only  of  beef  breeding, .  but  of  good  beef  breeding. 
The  more  one  deals  with  feeder  cattle  the  more  one  learns  to 
study  heads  and  to  place  reliance  on  what  the  head  indicates 
as  to  form,  quality,  feeding  capacity,  constitution,  thrift,  breed- 
ing, and  disposition. 

The  colors  of  the  beef  breeds  are  certainly  preferred  in 
feeder  steers,  but  many  scrub  animals  masquerade  under  these 
colors.  Red,  roan,  or  black  are  frequently  found  in  animals 
carrying  a  very  small  percentage  of  Shorthorn,  Hereford,  Aber- 
deen-Angus, or  Galloway  blood.  The  same  is  true  of  the  polled 


104         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

head  of  the  Aberdeen-Angus,  Galloway,  Polled  Durham,  and 
Polled  Hereford.  Well-bred  beef  steers  carry  the  colors  of  the 
beef  breeds,  but  these  colors  do  not  always  cover  well-bred  beef 
steers.  Color  alone  is  not  a  safe  guide  to  good  breeding.  Color 
gives  unmistakable  evidence,  however,  if  it  is  the  fawn,  or  spotted 
white  and  fawn,  of  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  or  the  black  and 
white  markings  of  the  Holstein.  In  such  cases,  color  furnishes 
all  the  evidence  we  need  as  to  the  breeding  of  the  animal.  As 
to  which  of  the  beef  breeds  should  be  given  preference  when 
selecting  feeders,  that  is  almost  entirely  a  matter  of  personal 
fancy.  They  are  all  good,  and  there  is  no  best.  There  are 
differences  to  be  sure,  but  none  great  enough  to  claim  attention 
here. 

8.  Disposition. — Nervous,  restless  cattle  are  profit-losers 
on  feed.     In  many  instances,  with  proper  handling,  such  steers 
quiet  down  a  great  deal  as  the  feeding  period  progresses,  but  in 
many  other  instances  this  is  not  true.     The  eye  and  the  carriage 
of  the  head,  ears,  and  tail  are  indications  of  the  disposition.     A 
high-headed,  wild-eyed  steer,  with  ears  in  motion  to  catch  the 
slightest  sound,  stampedes  on  the  least  provocation.     The  poll 
of  the  head  should  be  carried  on  a  line  with  the  back,  and  the 
eyes  should  be  placid  in  expression,  indicating  a  quiet,  con- 
tented feeder  that  will  make  gains  in  proportion  to  the  feed  he 
consumes,  instead  of  wasting  his  energy  in  nervousness  and 
frightened  antics. 

9.  Style. — A  low-backed,   awkward,  slouching  kind  of  a 
steer  may  feed  as  well  and  yield  as  good  a  carcass  as  a  wide- 
awake, straight-lined  steer  that  stands  squarely  on  his  legs, 
but  other  things  being  equal  the  latter  steer  looks  much  better 
and  attracts  more  favorable  attention  on  the  market  than  the 
former.    A  steer  of  good  style  shows  for  all  he  is  worth.     The 
other  kind  fail  to  make  a  good  impression  at  first  sight,  and 
on  a  crowded  market  this  may  mean  much. 

10.  Uniformity  in  size  and  color  adds  much  to  the  attrac- 
tiveness of  a  load  of  cattle,  and  in  buying  feeders  this  point  is 
worthy  of  attention.     They  look  better  in  the  feed-lot,  and  an 
even  load  of  steers  attracts  more  attention  on  the  market  than 
does  a  mixture  of  all  sizes,  colors,  and  sorts. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  other  points  may  well  be  con- 
sidered in  selecting  feeders.  Avoid  cattle  that  have  cuts,  sores, 
or  lumps  on  them  anywhere,  especially  those  showing  lumpy 
jaw.  Avoid  blind  steers,  lame  ones,  and  those  with  crooked 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         105 

legs.  Big,  sprawling  brands  affect  the  value  of  the  hide.  When 
determining  upon  the  price,  remember  to  consider  the  amount 
of  fill  the  cattle  will  carry  to  the  scales.  In  buying  at  the  large 
markets,  avoid  "stale"  cattle,  which  means  those  that  have 
been  on  the  market  several  days  and  are  too  well  filled.  Watch 
the  droppings  for  evidence  of  grain  feeding,  and  give  preference 
to  grass-fed  cattle  as  they  are  usually  more  thrifty  and  respond 
better  to  grain  feeding.  A  steer  that  has  had  grain  to  put  him 
in  feeder  condition  may  be  looked  on  with  suspicion.  He  may 
be  a  hard  feeder  and  poor  doer.  Go  to  the  market  and  accom- 
pany the  commission  man  when  he  selects  and  buys  your  feeders. 
You  will  learn  much  from  your  visit  to  the  market  and  the  com- 
mission man  will  be  aided  by  knowing  exactly  the  kind  of  cattle 
you  want. 

Advantages  of  cattle  feeding. — The  reasons  for  fattening 
a  steer  are"  many  and  important,  even  though  feeding  does  not 
increase  the  lean  meat  or  muscle.  They  are  as  follows: 

1.  Feeding  increases  the  value  of  the  steer. 

(a)  Adds  weight  to  the  animal. 

(b)  Improves  the  form  and  appearance. 

(c)  Increases  the  dressing  percentage. 

(d)  Covers  the  carcass  with  fat  so  that  it  may  be  held 
in  the  cooler  long  enough  to  ripen. 

(e)  The  marbling  expands  the  lean  meat,  making  the 
steer  thicker  in  all  his  cuts. 

(f)  Makes  the  beef  more  tender  and  juicy. 

(g)  Fat  beef  cooks  much  better  than  lean  beef, 
(h)     Fat  meat  is  more  nutritious  than  lean  meat. 

2.  Utilizes  as  feed  much  that  would  otherwise  be  waste 
on  the  farm. 

3.  Gives  employment  to  labor  when  other  farm  work  is 
slack. 

4.  Makes  easily  possible  the  maintenance  and  improve- 
ment of  soil  fertility. 

5.  Cattle  feeding,  properly  managed,  is  a  profitable  enter- 
prise. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  CATTLE. 

The  large  live-stock  markets  classify  their  receipts  of  cattle 
into  various  classes  and  grades,  depending  upon  the  quality, 
condition,  weight,  age,  and  sex  of  the  animals.  A  market  class 
may  be  defined  as  a  group  of  animals  on  the  live-stock  market,  all 
of  which  are  suitable  for  a  certain  commercial  use. 

There  is  a  clear  distinction  between  type  and  market  class. 
A  type  represents  an  ideal  which  the  breeder  or  feeder  is  en- 
deavoring to  produce.  Types  represent  only  the  most  highly 
desirable  or  profitable  sorts  of  animals,  while  there  are  market 
classes  for  all  sorts  of  animals — profitable  and  unprofitable  from 
the  producer's  standpoint.  The  market  classification  represents 
the  practical  outcome  of  producers'  attempts  to  reach  ideals, 
and  a  visit  to  any  market  will  show  that  often  they  do  not  reach 
them.  Hence,  some  market  classes  have  counterparts  among 
the  types,  and  some  have  not.  The  latter  might  be  termed 
the  by-products  or  misfits  of  the  breeder's  art.  Of  these  there 
is  always  a  percentage,  depending  upon  how  difficult  a  task  the 
producer  set  for  himself;  the  more  extreme  the  type,  the  greater 
the  percentage  of  misfits.  Most  of  these  misfits  are  useful,  and 
some  return  a  profit  to  the  producer. 

There  will  always  be  some  market  classes  which  return  a 
maximum  profit  to  the  breeder  and  feeder,  and  these  the  breeder 
will  try  to  produce  by  adjusting  his  type  accordingly  and  select- 
ing animals  for  breeding  purposes  which  nearest  approach  the 
ideal, — in  other  words,  typical  animals.  The  less  profitable 
market  classes  are  filled  incidentally,  not  through  any  design 
on  the  part  of  the  breeder.  Some  market  classes  are  composed 
of  animals  that  have  already  served  one  or  more  purposes;  having 
outlived  their  usefulness,  they  are  discarded  and  sent  to  market. 
The  market  is  accommodating;  it  provides  a  place  for  all  sorts 
of  odds  and  ends,  and  hunts  up  a  use  for  them.  Thus,  some 
market  classes  persist  which  at  first  thought  have  no  excuse 
for  being.  Everything  classifies  somewhere.  The  types  are 
logically  much  fewer  than  the  market  classes. 

On  the  large  live-stock  markets,  cattle  are  handled  accord- 
ing to  the  following  classification: 

106 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         107 

1.  Fat  steers,  including  all  fat  steers  suitable  for  block 
beef. 

2.  Western  range  cattle,  including  all  grass-fed  branded 
cattle  direct  from  western  ranges. 

3.  Butcher  stock,  including  the  better  grades  of  heifers, 
cows,  and  bulls  suitable  for  block  beef. 

4.  Cutters  and  canners,  including  mostly  thin  cows  and 
bulls,  but  also  inferior  steers  and  heifers,  in  fact  anything  not 
suitable  for  feeding,  and  too  inferior  to  yield  a  carcass  suitable 
for  block  use. 

5.  Stockers  and  feeders,  including  thin  calves,  yearlings, 
two-year-olds,  and  older  cattle.     It  may  include  steers,  heifers, 
cows,  or  bulls. 

6.  Veal  calves,  including  all  grades  of  veal  calves. 

7.  Milkers    and    springers. — These    are    cattle    of    dairy 
breeding  which  are  usually  more  valuable  for  milking  purposes 
than  for  beef.     They  are  sorted  out  and  sold  for  dairy  purposes. 

Fat  Steers. 

The  fat  steer  class  represents  the  cream  of  the  market, 
including  only  those  steers  which  show  the  effects  of  good  feed- 
ing. In  this  class  condition  and  quality  are  of  more  importance 
than  weight.  The  demand  comes  from  two  classes  of  buyers: 
(1)  Packers  for  dressed  beef  slaughtered  in  Chicago,  and  (2) 
eastern  buyers  who  ship  for  slaughter  to  Boston,  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  Pittsburg,  Baltimore,  Cleveland,  Albany,  Detroit, 
and  many  other  cities.  The  cattle  which  classify  as  fat  steers 
may  be  divided  into  five  grades.  A  grade  is  a  division  of  a 
market  class  or  sub-class,  the  division  depending  upon  value. 
The  grades  of  fat  steers  are:  (1)  Prime,  (2)  choice,  (3)  good, 
(4)  medium,  and  (5)  common.  Each  market  class  is  divided  up 
into  various  grades.  For  example,  we  speak  of  "prime  steers," 
"medium  steers,"  "good  cows,"  "common  canners,"  "choice 
feeders,"  etc.  Fat  steers  dress  from  55  to  67  per  cent,  and 
supply  the  highest  class  of  trade. 

Prime  steers. — This  is  the  most  select  grade  of  the  fat 
steer  class.  Buyers  for  eastern  markets  take  most  of  this  grade, 
and  packers  take  the  rest.  Prime  steers  are  practically  above 
criticism  in  form,  quality,  and  fatness.  They  show  a  high  de- 
velopment of  flesh  in  loin,  back,  thighs,  twist,  and  rump,  are 
very  broad  and  deep,  and  are  free  from  paunchiness.  The 
head  is  medium-sized  and  clean-cut.  The  bone  is  clean  and 


108 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


fine,  the  skin  pliable  and  medium  thick,  and  the  outlines  are 
smooth  and  well  rounded.  The  flesh  is  abundant  in  all  parts, 
and  is  firm,  yet  mellow  and  springy  to  the  touch.  There  are 
no  ties,  rolls,  or  patches  of  flabby  fat,  but  a  smooth,  even,  deep, 
firm  fleshing  everywhere.  Prime  steers  weighing  from  1200 
to  1400  pounds  are  in  greatest  demand,  although  they  may 
weigh  up  to  1600  pounds.  Very  few  steers  come  to  market 
which  grade  as  prime.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  International 
Live  Stock  Exposition,  which  is  held  at  the  Union  Stock  Yards 
in  December,  most  of  the  fat  steers  are  sold,  and  these  are  usually 
prime,  but  it  requires  much  searching  to  locate  cattle  of  this 
sort  at  other  periods  of  the  year. 


Fig.  23.     Prime  Fat  Steers. 

Choice  steers. — If  a  steer  is  not  quite  right  in  quality  or 
condition,  but  still  possesses  to  a  marked  degree  the  charac- 
teristics most  sought  by  packers  and  shippers,  he  is  called  a 
choice  steer. 

Good  steers. — Good  fat  steers  may  be  of  very  good  quality, 
but  noticeably  lacking  in  condition  or  finish;  they  may  be  fin- 
ished or  in  prime  condition,  yet  lacking  in  quality;  or  they  may 
be  noticeably  deficient  in  both  quality  and  condition,  but  still 
good  enough  to  be  above  the  average  grade  of  fat  cattle  reach- 
ing the  market.  By  far  the  largest  number  of  steers  belonging 
to  the  good  grade  may  be  said  to  be  a  little  on  the  coarse  order; 
they  are  fat  and  of  good  weight,  but  rather  plain. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


109 


Medium  steers. — These  are  of  about  average  quality  and 
condition,  lacking  to  a  marked  degree  the  finish  and  quality 
demanded  in  a  prime  steer.  They  are  generally  too  paunchy 
and  too  lacking  in  condition  and  quality  to  dress  a  high  per- 
centage of  beef  or  show  a  good  proportion  of  fat.  The  beef 
from  such  steers  is  not  good  enough  to  meet  the  demands  of 
dealers  in  beef  of  the  best  quality,  nor  is  the  proportion  of  the 
high-priced  cuts  large. 

Common  rough  steers. — This  is  the  lowest  grade  of  steers 
coming  to  the  market.  They  are  very  much  lacking  in  form, 


Fig.  24.     Choice  Fat  Steers. 

quality,  and  condition.  Steers  of  good  quality  that  are  not  fat 
enough  to  be  classed  as  beef  steers  are  classed  among  the  better 
grades  of  stockers  and  feeders;  therefore,  this  grade  includes 
only  those  steers  which  are  too  thin  to  sell  among  the  higher 
grades  of  beef  cattle,  and  too  coarse  and  rough  to  be  sold  as 
stockers  and  feeders. 

Heifers. — Two  to  four  heifers  mixed  in  with  a  load  of  fat 
steers  may  be  passed  without  any  cut  in  price  if  they  are  similar 
to  the  steers  in  all  respects  except  sex.  However,  this  class  is 
a  fat-steer  proposition,  and  market  reports  always  give  separate 
quotations  for  fat  steers  and  fat  heifers. 


110 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Sub-class  baby  beef. — Choice  and  prime  fat  steers  between 
12  and  20  months  of  age  and  weighing  from  800  to  1000  pounds 
are  styled  "baby  beef"  or  "fat  yearlings"  upon  the  market. 
These  are  not  separated  from  the  fat  steer  class,  but  constitute 
a  sub-class  within  it.  As  pointed  out  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
the  fat  yearling  is  becoming  the  most  prominent  feature  of  the 
cattle  market.  Beginning  in  1904,  fat  yearlings  have  steadily 
increased  in  numbers,  this  increase  having  been  most  marked 
during  the  past  few  years.  Most  market  reports  now  give 
separate  quotations  for  this  sub-class. 


Fig.  25.     Good  Fat  Steers. 

Source  of  the  fat  steer  class. — Cattle  which  classify  as  fat 
steers  come  from  the  feed-lots  of  the  cornbelt  states.  They  are 
steers  which  have  been  grain-fed.  The  class  includes  steers 
that  were  bred  and  raised  in  the  cornbelt,  known  as  "native" 
steers,  and  also  branded  steers  bred  and  raised  on  western  ranges 
and  then  taken  to  cornbelt  farms  to  be  fattened.  The  latter 
are  sometimes  called  "fed  Westerns." 

Western  Range  Cattle. 

Not  so  many  years  ago,  western  cattle  were  distinguished 
by  very  long  horns,  long  legs,  thin  flesh,  narrow  bodies,  and 
large,  deep  brands.  This  type  WPS  known  as  the  "Texas  long- 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


111 


horn."  So  many  purebred  beef  bulls  have  been  taken  to  the 
ranges,  however,  that  today  the  long-horned  Texan  is  rarely 
seen.  Western  cattle  now  carry  a  high  percentage  of  the  blood 
of  the  improved  beef  breeds,  and  the  heads  are  either  naturally 
polled  or  have  short  or  medium-length  horns.  Many  prize- 
winning  bulls  have  been  bought  by  western  cattlemen  and 
turned  loose  upon  the  range,  and  today  range  cattle  usually 
have  the  low-set,  blocky  form  and  flesh-making  qualities  of  their 
sires.  There  were  no  cattle  in  America  prior  to  its  discovery; 
the  old-fashioned  Texas  and  western  cattle  undoubtedly  sprang 
from  animals  which  escaped  from  the  hands  of  early  Spanish 
explorers  or  were  left  behind  when  they  were  forced  to  make  a 
retreat. 

The  best  western  cattle  are  used  for  the  same  purposes  as 


Fig.  26.    Prime  Baby  Beeves. 

These  are  representatives  of  the  famous  "blue-grays"  so  popular  in  the 
British  markets.  They  were  sired  by  a  Shorthorn  bull,  and  their  dams  were 
Galloway  cows. 

the  best  native  cattle,  but  being  largely  grass-fed,  they  are 
more  subject  to  shrink  during  shipping.  All  Texas  and  western 
range  cattle  are  branded,  and  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "branded 
cattle."  As  a  rule,  branded  cattle  sell  at  a  discount  because  of 
the  damage  to  the  hide.  In  cases  of  brands  on  the  body,  the 
damage  to  the  hide  is  estimated  anywhere  from  five  to  fifteen 
cents  per  cwt.,  according  to  size  and  location,  and  in  extreme 
cases  where  there  is  a  big,  sprawling  side  brand,  covering  a  large 
part  of  the  surface,  the  discount  will  be  very  much  higher,  as 
it  practically  spoils  half  the  hide. 

The  range  country  furnishes  grass  from  the  middle  of  July 
until  the  middle  of  November,  and  cattle  coming  to  market 


112 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


from  the  grass  of  western  ranges  are  known  upon  the  market 
as  "grass  westerns."  When  grass  gives  out  on  western  ranges, 
the  cattle  are  sent  to  market.  Texas  cattle  begin  to  appear  in 
May  and  make  a  heavy  run  from  that  time  until  October,  while 
other  branded  cattle  from  the  West  make  a  heavy  run  from 
August  1  to  December  1.  During  the  five  months  from  Novem- 
ber until  May,  very  few  such  cattle  reach  Chicago. 

Butcher  Stock. 

Butcher  stock  and  cutters  and  canners  may  be  looked  upon 
as  by-products  of  the  cattle-feeding  industry.  Butcher  stock 
has  the  same  relation  to  the  fat  steer  class  which  skim  milk 


Fig.  27.     Old-Time  Texas  Long-Horn. 

Formerly  a  prominent  feature  on  the  large  cattle  markets. 

has  to  cream.  The  bulk  of  butcher  stock  is  made  up  of  fat 
cows,  heifers,  and  bulls.  They  .dress  out  from  50  to  61  per  cent, 
and  the  carcasses  are  used  to  supply  the  trade  in  small  towns, 
and  the  medium  class  of  trade  in  cities.  The  grades  within 
this  class  are:  Prime,  choice,  good,  and  medium  heifers;  prime, 
choice,  good,  and  medium  cows;  and  choice,  good,  and  medium 
bulls. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         113 

Heifers. — The  same  conformation,  quality,  and  condition 
are  demanded  in  prime  heifers  that  have  already  been  noted 
as  characteristic  of  prime  steers.  The  only  noteworthy  differ- 
ence is  that  of  sex.  (See  Fig.  19.)  Choice,  good,  and  medium 
heifers  are  similar  to  steers  of  the  same  grades. 

Cows. — The  prime  grade  includes  a  very  small  number 
of  strictly  fancy,  well-bred  cows,  in  prime  condition.  Choice 
cows  are  prime  in  condition,  but  are  somewhat  deficient  in 
quality.  Good  cows  lack  in  both  condition  and  quality,  but 
are  fat  enough  to  be  reasonably  good  killers.  Medium  cows 


Fig.  28.     Modern  Western  Range  Cattle. 

These  cattle  were  sired  by  purebred  bulls  and  were  fattened  on  grass. 
In  the  background  appears  a  scales-house  where  cattle  are  weighed  to  the 
buyer  when  sold. 

are  poor  in  form,  low  in  condition,  and  deficient  in  quality. 
This  is  the  lowest  grade  suitable  for  block  beef. 

Bulls  and  stags. — There  are  very  few  choice  bulls;  the 
supply  is  made  up  of  good  beef  bulls  which  have  become  too 
aged  for  further  use  as  breeders.  Bulls  of  the  good  grade  lack 
in  quality  and  condition.  Medium  bulls  are  thin,  long  legged, 
and  coarse,  and  are  just  good  enough  to  escape  bologna  or  the 
tin  can.  Very  few  stags  come  to  market.  They  are  classed 
and  graded  the  same  as  bulls. 


114         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 
Cutters  and  Canners. 

Cutters  carry  sufficient  flesh  to  permit  of  the  loin  or  rib, 
or  both,  being  used  for  block  purposes,  the  remainder  of  the 
carcass  being  canned.  The  cutter  and  canner  class  is  made  up 
mostly  of  old  thin  cows  that  are  very  paunchy,  indicating  a  high 
percentage  of  offal  when  dressed.  Many  of  them  are  cast-off 
dairy  cows  which  are  sent  to  market  without  any  attempt  being 
made  to  fatten  them.  They  dress  from  35  to  55  per  cent.  The 
lowest  grade  of  canners  furnishes  a  sort  of  comic  supplement 


Fig.  29.     Good  to  Choice  Heifer. 

to  a  cattle  market;  marketmen  refer  to  them  as  "Dairy  Maids," 
"Nellies/'  "Hat  Racks,"  "Skins,"  "Dogs,"  and  "Sea  Horses," 
thus  showing  their  lack  of  appreciation  for  such  cattle. 

Canners  include  thin  cows,  inferior  steers,  heifers,  bulls, 
and  stags,  and  in  fact  anything  of  a  very  low,  inferior  grade 
that  is  too  lacking  in  flesh  to  permit  of  even  a  part  of  the  carcass 
being  sold  over  the  butcher's  block.  They  are  also  too  old  and 
unthrifty,  and  of  such  inferior  type  and  breeding  as  to  render 
them  unfit  for  the  stocker  and  feeder  trade.  They  are  the  very 
lowest  grade  of  cattle  coming  to  market. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


115 


The  grades  within  the  cutter  and  canner  class  are  good, 
medium,  and  common  cutters;  good,  medium,  and  common 
canners;  and  bologna  bulls. 

Stockers  and  Feeders. 

Stockers  and  feeders  include  calves,  yearlings,  two-year-olds, 
and  older  cattle.  The  difference  between  a  stocker  and  a  feeder 
is  that  the  stocker  is  usually  a  younger  and  thinner  steer  or 
heifer,  used  mostly  for  grazing  purposes  and  possibly  fed  out 
after  being  grazed  for  a  time,  while  a  feeder  is  usually  a  steer, 
older  and  in  higher  flesh  than  the  stocker,  and  suitable  for  placing 


Fig.  30.     Good  Cutters. 

in  the  feed-lot  immediately  and  feeding  upon  a  grain  ration. 
Heifers  are  not  commonly  classed  as  feeders.  The  grades  of 
stockers  and  feeders  are:  Fancy  selected,  choice,  good,  medium, 
and  common  feeders;  feeder  bulls;  fancy  selected,  choice,  good, 
medium,  and  common  yearling  stockers;  good,  medium,  and 
common  stock  heifers,  and  stock  and  feeding  cows. 

Fancy  selected  feeders. — Very  few  of  the  fancy  grade 
reach  the  market,  as  breeders  fortunate  enough  to  own  thin 
steers  of  such  quality  usually  hold  them  until  finished  as  prime 
steers,  or  sell  them  direct  to  neighboring  feeders  at  good  strong 
prices.  Fancy  selected  feeders  must  be  uniform  in  size,  type, 
and  color,  and  show  unmistakable  signs  of  good  breeding.  They 


116        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

are  practically  above  criticism,  possessing  in  a  high  degree  the 
form,  quality,  constitution,  fleshing,  and  disposition  of  an  ideal 
feeder  as  described  in  Chapter  VII. 

Choice  feeders. — Steers  of  this  grade  will,  under  proper 
management,  develop  into  choice  and  prime  fat  steers.  They 
possess  the  ability  to  make  economical  gains  in  flesh.  Choice 
feeders  compared  to  fancy  selected  feeders  are  somewhat  de- 
ficient in  some  one  point,  such  as  form,  quality,  or  uniformity, 
or  they  are  slightly  deficient  in  several  points.  They  must  show 
evidence  of  good  breeding,  and  everything  considered  they  are  ex- 
cellent cattle  for  feeding  purposes.  Most  of  the  best  feeder  steers 
on  the  market  grade  as  "choice"  rather  than  as  "fancy  selected." 


Fig.  31.     Common  or  Inferior  Canners. 

Good  feeders. — These  possess  in  less  degree  the  qualities 
which  characterize  choice  and  fancy  selected  feeders.  They 
are  not  so  thrifty,  have  not  as  good  conformations,  and  carry 
a  smaller  precentage  of  good  breeding.  They  are  easily  criti- 
cized, for  they  are  too  long  of  leg,  too  narrow  across  the  back, 
and  either  too  fine  or  too  heavy  in  bone.  Good  feeders  will 
finish  into  good  fat  steers,  or  perhaps  may  make  the  choice  grade. 

Medium  feeders. — These  are  very  much  lacking  in  form, 
quality,  and  constitution,  and  very  seldom  grade  higher  than 
medium  when  fattened.  Many  of  them  are  off -colored  and 
spotted  and  bear  little  promise  of  accomplishing  anything  note- 
worthy on  feed.  Marketmen  refer  to  such  cattle  as  "doggy." 

Common  feeders. — These  are  common  in  quality,  confor- 
mation, and  condition.  It  seldom  pays  to  feed  them.  Dairy- 
type  steers  classify  here. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


117 


Feeder  bulls. — These  are  young  bulls  of  good  beef  type. 
Both  the  supply  and  the  demand  are  limited. 

Stockers. — Thin  yearling  steers  are  not  in  much  demand 
as  feeders  so  long  as  the  supply  of  two-year-olds  is  large  enough 
to  satisfy  feeder  demands.  The  yearlings  are  mostly  available 
for  stocker  purposes  and  are  quoted  in  market  reports  as  "year- 
ling stockers."  They  are  such  cattle  as  will,  after  a  summer 
on  grass  and  good  wintering,  be  suitable  to  put  on  grain  feed. 
Most  of  the  stocker  trade,  however,  is  in  heifers  which  when 
sent  to  the  country  are  used  for  grazing  and  for  breeding  pur- 


Fig.  32.     Choice  Feeder. 

poses.  The  better  ones  have  considerable  beef  blood  and  good 
square  frames.  They  are  too  thin  to  classify  as  butcher  stock, 
and  are  too  good  in  form  and  quality  to  sell  at  the  low  prices 
paid  for  cutters  and  canners.  Stockers  are  graded  on  the  same 
basis  as  feeders. 

Stock  and  feeding  cows. — A  rather  common  practice  is 
to  buy  thin  cows  showing  evidences  of  beef  breeding,  turn  them 
on  pasture  and  breed  them,  rough  them  through  the  winter, 
and  the  next  season,  after  their  calves  are  weaned,  fatten  them 
off  for  market,  retaining  the  calves  for  feeding  purposes.  Such 
cows  are  called  stock  and  feeding  cows. 


118         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Veal  Calves. 

Veal  calves  are  a  by-product  of  the  dairy  industry.  Most 
of  them  are  of  dairy  type  and  breeding,  and  are  not  profitable 
to  raise  for  beef.  The  veal  calves  annually  slaughtered  in  the 
United  States  are  nearly  half  as  many  as  the  cattle  slaughtered 
for  beef,  but  their  dressed  weight  is  only  one-tenth  of  the  dressed 
weight  of  the  cattle.  Veal  calves  are  dressed  with  the  skin  on, 
and  a  well-fattened  veal  dresses  from  65  to  70  per  cent.  The 
desired  type  is  a  blocky,  sleek,  smooth  calf,  with  comparatively 
small  head.  The  neck  should  be  thick,  the  brisket  full,  ribs 
well  covered,  loin  wide,  flanks  full,  rump  plump  and  meaty, 


Fig.  33.     Good  Feeders. 

thighs  plump,  and  scrotum  or  udder  full.     The  skin  should  be 
sleek,  mellow,  and  easily  lifted. 

The  most  important  factors  determining  the  value  of  a  veal 
calf  are  age,  condition,  and  weight.  Weight  is  not  so  important 
as  age  and  flesh.  To  command  the  highest  price,  a  young  calf 
should  carry  high  finish,  weigh  from  140  to  160  pounds,  and  be 
about  eight  weeks  old.  A  strictly  fat  calf  of  150  pounds  at 
seven  weeks  of  age  is  the  sort  that  tops  the  market.  Veal  calves 
range  in  weight  from  80  to  450  pounds,  and  in  age  from  5  to  20 
weeks.  The  grades  are  choice,  good,  medium,  and  common. 
Following  are  the  requirements  of  the  various  grades  as  to  fat- 
ness, weight,  and  age: 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


119 


Choice well  fatted... 

Good fat 

Medium medium  fat.  . 

Common thin .... 


.  120-160  Ibs 6-  8  weeks 

.110-200  Ibs 6-10  weeks 

.  100-240  Ibs 5-^2  weeks 

.   80-450  Ibs wide  range 


Milkers  and  Springers. 

These  are  cows  and  heifers  of  dairy  type  and  breeding 
which  are  sorted  out  of  the  run  of  cattle  at  the  market  and 
sold  to  dairymen.  They  are  sold  by  the  head,  whereas  all  other 
classes  of  cattle  are  sold  by  the  hundredweight.  The  only 
difference  between  a  milker  and  a  springer  is  that  the  former  is 
in  milk  while  the  latter  is  heavy  in  calf  and  will  freshen  soon. 


Fig.  34.     Medium  Feeders. 

The  springer  gives  evidence  in  her  type,  color,  and  mammary 
development  that  she  will  be  a  useful  milk  cow  after  calving. 
The  value  of  this  class  of  cattle  depends  partly  on  their  age, 
and  this  is  determined  from  the  teeth. 

Haw  are  cattle  classed  and  graded? — Persons  who  are  not 
familiar  with  the  large  markets  sometimes  ask  by  what  method 
the  thousands  of  cattle  arriving  daily  at  the  yards  are  divided 
up  into  the  various  classes  and  grades.  To  reply  that  cattle 
are  classified  according  to  the  use  made  of  them,  while  true, 
is  not  a  satisfactory  answer,  for  another  question  then  arises 
as  to  who  or  what  decides  how  they  shall  be  used.  It  may  be 
said  that  the  class  and  grade  of  any  particular  animal  or  carload 
of  animals  on  the  market  will  be  finally  determined  by  the  com- 


120         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

petition  on  that  day's  market  and  by  the  price  paid;  in  other 
words,  supply  and  demand  largely  determine  the  limits  of  each 
class.  For  example,  certain  steers  received  at  the  market  are 
of  a  type  and  carry  a  degree  of  fleshing  which  place  them  at 
about  the  dividing  line  between  stockers  and  feeders  on  the  one 
hand  and  fat  steers  on  the  other.  The  class  these  steers  will 
make  will  depend  on  who  will  bid  the  highest  for  them.  If 
there  is  a  big  run  of  feeders  that  day  and  not  many  fat  steers, 
the  fat  cattle  buyers  will  probably  bid  higher  for  them  than 
anyone  else,  and  so  they  go  as  fat  steers.  If  the  fat  steer  market 
is  dull  and  the  feeder  market  active,  they  will  in  all  probability 
be  sold  as  feeders. 


Fig.  35.     Common  or  Inferior  Feeder. 

There  is  the  same  indefinite  line  of  division  between  the 
poorest  grade  of  butcher  cows  and  the  best  grade  of  cutters. 
The  former  shade  off  by  degrees  into  the  latter.  Cows  may  sell 
one  day  as  butcher  cows  that  would  sell  the  next  day  as  cutters, 
depending  on  the  fluctuations  in  supply  and  demand.  It  is 
again  impossible  to  fix  absolutely  the  line  of  division  between 
cutters  and  canners.  One  merges  with  the  other.  Likewise 
stockers  and  feeders  cannot  be  sharply  separated.  Butcher 
bulls  and  bologna  bulls  furnish  still  another  example.  It  is 
possible  that  an  animal  might  be  almost  equally  eligible  to  three 
classes.  For  instance,  a  heifer  of  a  certain  type  and  degree  of 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        121 

flesh  might  at  some  seasons  of  the  year,  class  among  the  poorest 
butcher  heifers,  the  best  cutters,  or  as  a  stock  heifer,  with  the 
chances  of  each  about  even  on  an  average  market.  Such  a  case 
is  not  decided  until  the  animal  is  sold.  If  a  buyer  of  butcher 
stuff  bids  the  most,  she  will  be  used  that  way.  If  the  cutter 
buyer  for  the  packer  gets  her,  she  is  a  cutter.  If  she  is  bought 
by  a  commission  firm  for  a  farmer,  she  is  a  stock  heifer.  She 
will  sell  to  the  highest  bidder  on  that  day's  market. 

Commodities  such  as  hardware,  dry  goods,  metals,  and 
many  other  articles  may  be  bought  and  sold  in  large  quantities 
without  examining  the  articles  because  they  are  standardized 
so  that  the  buyer  knows  exactly  what  he  will  get.  Even  the 


Fig.  36.     Choice  Veal  Calf. 

grain  market  has  been  standardized.  But  not  so  the  live-stock 
market.  So  many  factors  enter  into  consideration  in  deter- 
mining the  value  of  an  animal,  and  these  factors  vary  so  much, 
that  live  stock  must  be  bought  and  sold  in  the  presence  of  the 
parties  concerned  in  the  transaction,  or  their  agents.  The  men 
engaged  in  buying  and  selling  on  any  market  differ  considerably 
in  their  opinions  as  to  the  exact  requirements  of  the  various 
classes  and  especially  of  the  various  grades  in  each  class.  They 
usually  agree  very  closely  on  the  price,  yet  one  prominent  buyer 
may  call  a  certain  fat  steer  a  typical  "choice"  steer,  and  another 
equally  well-qualified  buyer  may  call  him  a  typical  "good"  steer. 
This  difference  of  opinion  is  largely  explained  by  the  fact  that 


122         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

they  are  accustomed  to  express  values  in  terms  of  dollars  and 
cents  rather  than  in  the  grade  names  used  in  reporting  the  mar- 
kets in  the  newspapers.  There  is  no  close  agreement  on  the 
exact  application  of  these  terms.  Even  the  reporters  for  the 
papers  are  not  themselves  agreed  on  the  application  of  many 
terms  they  use. 

Between  one  market  and  another  there  are  still  other  dif- 
ferences in  the  application  of  terms.  The  best  fat  steers  of  a 
certain  market  will  be  quoted  as  prime  steers  in  the  daily  reports 
of  that  market  as  given  in  the  newspapers,  yet  these  same  steers 
on  some  other  large  market  where  a  better  class  of  cattle  are 
regularly  received  would  never  be  called  better  than  choice 
steers.  Admittedly  there  is  opportunity  for,  and  need  of,  greater 
uniformity  in  the  use  and  meaning  of  market  terms,  yet  the  mar- 
ket classifications  'as  they  now  exist  at  various  markets,  with 
all  their  inaccuracies  and  lack  of  uniformity,  serve  a  valuable 
purpose.  They  furnish  at  least  some  sort  of  a  "handle"  to  the 
market.  Without  them  it  would  be  next  to  impossible  to  report 
the  markets  to  country  stock  buyers,  stockmen,  and  farmers. 
For  example,  the  term  "canner  cow"  has  come  to  have  a  pretty 
generally  accepted  meaning.  So  has  "fat  steer,"  "veal  calf," 
"feeder  steer,"  and  many  other  class  names,  but  the  require- 
ments of  the  various  grades  within  each  class  are  far  from  being 
definitely  agreed  upon  by  various  individuals,  and  various 

markets. 

« 

Cattle  Prices  at  Chicago. 

Chicago  prices  during  1918. — The  average  price  for  fat 
steers  on  the  Chicago  market*  during  1918  at  $14.65  stood  as 
a  new  record  in  that  market.  Butcher  stock  reached  a  new 
record  average  at  $9.50,  and  the  same  was  true  of  grass  western 
steers  at  $14.40,  cutters  and  canners  at  $7.25,  veal  calves  at 
$15.75,  and  stockers  and  feeders  at  $10.25.  The  lowest  and 
highest  prices  paid  at  Chicago  for  the  various  classes  of  cattle 
in  1918  were  as  follows:  Fat  steers,  $9.00-$20.50;  western 
range  steers,  $7.25-$18.50;  western  cows  and  heifers,  $4.85- 
$14.50;  fat  native  cows  and  heifers,  $5. 50-$  18. 00;  native  bulls, 
$5.50-$16.00;  cutters  and  canners,  $3.50-$8.35;  stockers  and 
feeders,  $5.50-$14.50;  and  veal  calves,  $4.25-$19.75. 

*  Year  Book  of  Figures,  1919. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


123 


Market  values  of  the  various  classes. — In  determining  the 
comparative  market  values  of  the  various  market  classes,  aver- 
ages for  one  year  are  not  sufficient  as  a  basis  for  comparison. 
The  following  table  gives  the  yearly  average  prices  at  Chicago 
for  the  several  market  classes  from  1909  to  1918,  and  also  the 
averages  for  the  entire  ten-year  period: 


Year 

Fat  Steers 

West'n  Range 

1 

g^ 

1 

Cutters  and 
canners 

Stockers  and 
feeders 

Veal  calves 

8 

i1 

P 

8 

31 

r-l 

It 

CO 

1-1 

fj 

b 

I 

o** 

1909 

1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 
1915 
1916 
1917 
1918 

$5.40 
5.90 
5.65 
7.10 
8.00 
8.10 
7.70 
8.45 
10.50 
13.25 

$5.90 
6.40 
6.00 
7.35 
8.10 
8.30 
8.05 
8.85 
11.50 
14.40 

$6.30 
6.95 
6.50 
8.10 
8.30 
8.70 
8.55 
9.40 
12.30 
15.00 

$6.90 
7.35 
6.75 
8.80 
8.65 
8.95 
8.75 
10.25 
13.05 
15.90 

$7.30 
7.70 
7.00 
9.60 
8.85 
9.75 
9.25 
10.75 
13.75 
16.50 

$6.35 
6.80 
6.40 
7.75 
8.25 
8.65 
8.40 
9.50 
11.60 
14.65 

£5.25 
5.40 
6.65 
7.60 
7.40 
7.65 
7.75 
8.40 
10.60 
14.40 

$4.10 
4.20 
5.00 
6.10 
6.05 
6.40 
6.00 
6.25 
9.00 
10.15 

$4.2, 
4.6C 
4.3£ 
5.25 
6.10 
6.55 
6.10 
6.75 
8.25 
9.50 

32.75 
3.10 
2.85 
3.40 
4.25 
4.60 
4.25 
4.80 
6.25 
7.25 

$4.50 
4.85 
4.75 
5.70 
7.05 

7.35 

* 

7.20 
8.40 
10.25 

$7.10 
8.10 
7.60 
8.75 
10.10 
9.90 
10.15 
10.85 
13.75 
15.75 

10.20 

10-yr. 
ave. 

8.00 

8.50 

9.00 

9.55 

10.05 

8.85 

8.10 

6.35 

6.15 

4.35 

6.65 

*  No  outlet,  due  to  outbreak  of  foot-and-mouth  disease  and  quarantine  of  the  yards. 

From  the  standpoint  of  averages,  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  price  of  a  fat  steer  bears  a  constant  relation  to  his  weight, 
the  heavier  the  steer,  the  higher  the  price  per  cwt.  This  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  as  a  steer  becomes  older  he  fattens  more 
easily;  and  in  dealing  with  groups  of  very  large  numbers  of  fat 
steers  of  different  weights,  all  factors  determining  value  are 
equalized  except  the  factor  of  fatness.  Between  the  average 
prices  of  900-pound  and  1,125-pound  fat  steers,  there  is  a  differ- 
ence of  50  cents  per  cwt.;  between  1,125-pound  and  1,275-pound 
steers,  the  difference  is  also  50  cents;  between  1,275  and  1,425 
pounds,  it  is  55  cents;  and  between  1,425  and  1,600  pounds, 
it  is  50  cents.  The  sum  of  all  these  differences  is  $2.05, 
which  is  the  difference  between  the  average  prices  of  the  lightest 
and  heaviest  groups  of  fat  steers.  All  fat  steers  together  sell 
75  cents  higher  than  western  range  steers,  and  $2.70  higher 
than  butcher  stock.  Between  stockers  and  feeders  and  fat 
steers,  there  exists  a  margin  of  $2.20  based  on  the  Chicago  fig- 
ures. Butcher  stock  sell  $1.80  higher  than  cutters  and  canners. 
Veal  calves  bring  the  highest  price  of  any  class,  exceeding  the 
price  of  fat  steers  by  $1.35. 


124        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Highest  and  lowest  monthly  prices. — It  is  true  of  Chicago 
and  of  the  six  leading  cattle  markets  that  beef  steers  are  usually 
highest  in  price  in  late  August  or  early  September.  They  are 
usually  lowest  about  the  last  of  January  or  first  of  February. 
The  fewest  receipts  occur  in  April  and  the  most  in  October. 

Highest  prices  for  stockers  and  feeders  are  made  in  April 
and  May,  which  mark  the  opening  of  the  pasture  season.  Low- 
est prices  occur  in  October,  November,  December,  and  January, 
January  being  the  lowest.  The  movement  of  stockers  and 
feeders  is  greatest  in  October,  November,  September,  December, 
and  August,  and  smallest  in  May. 

Fat  cows  and  heifers  sell  highest  in  May,  and  lowest  in 
Dscember  and  January. 

Cutter  and  canner  prices  exhibit  no  marked  high  and  low 
spots,  and  the  high  points  in  prices  are  the  most  irregular  in 
occurrence  of  any  class  of  cattle. 

Largest  receipts  of  veal  calves  arrive  from  March  to  May. 
Highest  prices  are  made  in  September  and  lowest  prices  in  April. 
One  reason  for  the  low  price  in  April  is  that  a  large  majority  of 
spring  calves  are  too  small  to  yield  high-class  veal. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
BREEDING  FOR  THE  MARKET. 

There  were  67,866,000  cattle  on  farms  in  the  United  States 
in  1919.  Of  this  number,  23,467,000  were  dairy  cattle  and  the 
remaining  44,399,000  were  reported  as  "other  cattle."  The 
average  value  of  dairy  cows  was  given  as  $78.24,  and  of  "other 
cattle,"  $44.16.  The  leading  states  in  numbers  of  cattle  other 
than  dairy  animals  on  farms  were  as  follows: 

I.Texas..                           ..3,961,000  G.California..                  ..1,650,000 

2.  Nebraska 2,940,000          7.  Minnesota 1,632,000 

3.  Iowa 2,861,000          8.  South  Dakota 1,496,000 

4.  Kansas 2,401,000          9.  Oklahoma 1,444,000 

5.  Missouri 1,782,000         10.  Wisconsin 1,436,000 

.     The  distribution  by  geographical  divisions  was  as  follows: 

North  Atlantic 2,337,000 

South  Atlantic 3,390,000 

North  Central,  East  of.  Mississippi  River . . 5,414,000 

North  Central,  West  of  Mississippi  River .  . .  T , 13,724,000 

South  Central 9,518,000 

Far  Western 10,016,000 


Total  United  States 44,399,000 

In  the  United  States  the  cattle  slaughtered  in  1910  were 
42  per  cent,  of  the  stock  of  cows  on  hand.  The  slaughtered 
calves  as  related  to  the  stock  of  cows  on  hand  were  20.3  per  cent. 
For  cattle  and  calf  slaughter  combined,  the  ratio  to  the  number 
of  cows  was  62.3  per  cent.  An  average  of  249  pounds  of  beef, 
including  veal,  was  produced  during  the  year  per  head  of  stock 
cows.  If  veal  is  excluded,  the  ratio  of  beef  to  stock  of  cows  was 
228  pounds.  The  veal  production  was  21  pounds  per  stock  cow. 

Market  cattle  are  bred  on  the  farms  of  the  East  and  Central 
West,  and  also  upon  the  large  ranches  of  the  West  and  South- 
west. A  national  shortage  of  beef  cattle,  together  with  a  world 
shortage,  has  served  to  elevate  beef  prices,  and  the  breeding  of 
beef  cattle  for  the  market  has  become  increasingly  attractive 
both  in  the  cornbelt  and  on  the  range.  The  first  live-stock 
census  was  taken  in  1840,  at  which  time  the  number  of  cattle, 
excluding  calves,  to  each  inhabitant  was  .88  of  an  animal.  It 
was  .81  of  an  animal  in  1860,  .72  in  1880,  .82  in  1890,  .89  in  1900, 
and  .71  in  1910.  By  the  use  of  better  and  better  animals  for 

125 


126         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

breeding  purposes,  however,  the  average  value  of  all  our  domestic 
animals  has  been  constantly  increased,  so  that  loss  in  numbers 
has  been  partially  equalized  by  increase  in  quality. 

In  partial  explanation  of  the  decline  of  beef  cattle  in  this 
country  since  1900,  it  may  be  said  that,  in  the  cornbelt,  cattle 
breeding  has  largely  changed  to  cattle  feeding  since  thirty  years 
ago.  Range  and  ranch  began  to  supply  feeders  cheaper  than 
they  could  be  raised  on  the  farm.  But  limitations  to  the  pro- 
duction of  feeders  began  to  appear.  In  the  West,  decline  in 
production  of  feeders  was  caused  by  the  enforcement  of  the  no- 
fence  law  on  the  public  land,  by  homesteading,  and  by  dry 
farming,  while  in  the  cornbelt  the  raising  of  steers  for  feeding 
declined  because  of  increase  in  dairying,  increased  cost  of  stockers 
and  feeders,  and  in  neglect  to  feed  roughage. 

As  the  supply  of  feeders  from  western  ranges  and  ranches 
is  certain  to  become  more  and  more  limited,  there  never  was  a 
better  time  for  the  cornbelt  farmer  to  engage  in  the  business  of 
beef  production;  the  time  is  ripe  for  the  man  who  wants  to  breed 
as  well  as  feed  cattle  for  the  market. 

In  Iowa  during  1911-1912,  24  farms  produced  816  calves 
and  fed  them  out  as  baby  beeves  at  a  profit  of  $7.00  per  head. 
The  cost  of  keeping  the  cow  a  year,  the  cost  of  feeds  at  full  mar- 
ket prices,  and  the  interest  on  the  investment  were  all  figured  in. 
In  1912-1913,  36  farms  bred,  fed,  and  sold  983  calves  at  an 
average  weight  of  876  pounds.  The  average  age  of  these  calves 
was  16  months.  They  sold  at  $8.60  per  cwt.,  or  $75.30  per 
head.  The  cost  per  head  was  $59.20;  this  left  a  profit  of  $16.10 
per  head.  A  comparison  of  crop  yields  during  five  years  on  ten 
beef  cattle  farms  in  ten  counties  in  Iowa,  and  on  ten  grain  farms 
in  the  same  neighborhoods  showed  that  the  cattle  farms  averaged 
14  bu.  more  corn  per  acre,  7  bu.  more  oats,  and  1  ton  more  hay. 
Baby  beef  production  has  the  following  advantages:  1.  There 
is  money  in  the  business  at  present  and  prospective  prices. 

2.  It  pays  better  than  average  market  prices  for  farm  crops. 

3.  It  makes  use  of  rough  lands  otherwise  wasted.    4.  It  helps 
to  maintain  soil  fertility.     5.  Helps  solve  the  labor  problem. 

When  breeding  for  beef,  the  producer  must  use  good  cattle 
of  the  beef  type.  Attention  must  be  given  to  the  selection  of 
both  the  cows  and  the  bulls,  and  an  effort  must  be  made  to 
breed  for  market  what  the  market  wants  and  will  pay  for  in 
amount  sufficient  to  return  a  profit.  In  some  years,  feeders 
of  cattle  find  it  more  profitable  to  buy  rather  a  low  grade  of 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         127 

cattle  for  feeding  purposes,  although  as  a  general  rule,  it  pays 
best  to  feed  high-class  cattle  that  will  sell  at  the  top  of  the  mar- 
ket, or  near  the  top,  when  finished.  Breeders  of  cattle  are 
confronted  with  no  such  problem  as  to  what  to  aim  for  in  breed- 
ing; they  should  always  try  to  breed  the  best.  Breeding  herds 
are  not  so  easily  or  quickly  changed  to  suit  fluctuations  in  market 
demands  as  are  cattle  in  the  feeder's  hands;  hence,  breeders 
abide  by  the  general  rule  that  greatest  returns  come  from  the 
production  of  the  highest  grade  of  cattle. 

When  the  object  of  the  breeder  is  to  produce  calves  to  be 
fed  for  the  market,  the  cows  in  the  herd  are  purebred  only  in 
rare  instances.  Purebred  cattle  are  not  so  numerous  as  to  per- 
mit their  widespread  use,  and  it  is  impracticable  to  advise  that 
purebred  cows  shall  constitute  the  common  herds  of  the  country, 
nor  would  it  be  possible  to  bring  about  that  condition  for  many 
years  to  come.  By  all  means,  however,  the  cows  in  such  herds 
should  be  high  grades  of  some  one  of  the  beef  breeds. 

At  this  point  some  definition  of  terms  is  necessary.  A 
purebred  animal  is  a  member  of  some  breed,  and  is  registered 
or  eligible  to  registry  in  the  herd  book  of  that  breed.  Second, 
it  is  an  animal  possessing  a  distinctive  and  useful  type.  Third, 
it  is  descended  from  a  long  line  of  ancestors  specially  selected 
by  the  men  who  founded  and  developed  that  breed,  these  ances- 
tors being  of  the  same  type  as  itself,  which  fact  explains  why 
the  animal  may  be  termed  a  purebred.  Fourth,  being  backed 
up  by  an  ancestry  of  useful  animals  like  itself,  it  has  the  power 
to  reproduce  this  useful  type  in  its  offspring,  this  power  or  ability 
being  called  prepotency.  As  it  is  a  rule  of  breeding  that  what 
goes  into  an  animal  from  its  ancestors  will  come  out  in  its  off- 
spring, we  at  once  realize  the  purebred's  power  for  good  when 
used  as  a  breeder.  The  terms  "full  blood"  and  "thorough- 
bred" are  often  erroneously  used  in  place  of  the  word  purebred. 

A  cross-bred  animal  is  one  whose  sire  and  dam  were  both 
purebred,  but  belonged  to  different  breeds.  A  cross  between 
a  Shorthorn  bull  and  a  Hereford  cow,  for  example,  produces  a 
cross-bred  calf. 

A  scrub  animal  is  one  that  bears  no  evidence  of  good  breed- 
ing— one  without  any  purebred  ancestors,  or,  at  most,  very  few 
and  very  distant  ones.  Its  ancestors  were  a  miscellaneous  lot, 
of  all  shapes,  sizes,  colors,  and  sorts,  few  if  any  of  which  were 
useful  animals.  Hence,  scrub  animals  are  usually  of  indeter- 
minate type  and  little  value. 


128         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

When  a  scrub  female  is  mated  with  a  purebred  male,  the 
offspring  is  called  a  grade.  If  this  grade  animal  is  in  turn  mated 
with  a  purebred  of  the  same  breed  as  its  own  purebred  parent, 
or  with  one  of  some  other  breed,  the  result  will  still  be  a  grade. 
When  three  or  more  crosses  have  been  made  upon  a  scrub  founda- 
tion by  sires  from  the  same  breed,  the  resulting  offspring  will 
possess  87.5  per  cent,  or  more  of  purebred  ancestry  and  may  be 
referred  to  as  high  grades. 

Returning  to  the  point  under  discussion,  cows  in  market 
beef  breeding  herds  should  be  high  grades,  preferably  with  all 
the  purebred  ancestors  members  of  the  same  breed.  From 
this  breed  also,  a  purebred  bull  should  be  selected  to  mate  with 
the  cows,  thus  insuring  a  uniform  lot  of  calves  for  feeding.  The 
herd  bull  should  be  selected  with  great  care.  It  is  often  said 
that  the  "bull  is  half  the  herd,"  and  some  one  has  added  the 
equally  true  statement  that  "an  inferior  bull  is  all  of  the  herd." 
In  breeding  all  kinds  of  farm  live  stock  we  expect  the  offspring 
to  be  better  than  the  dam,  and  we  rely  upon  the  sire  to  bring 
about  this  improvement.  In  breeding  beef  cattle  for  the  market, 
it  is  well  te  have  good  cows,  but  it  is  an  absolute  essential  to 
have  a  good  bull.  We  pin  our  hopes  on  him.  He  must  be  a 
good  individual,  he  must  be  purebred,  and  he  should  come 
from  a  good  line  of  ancestry.  These  three  points  are  guarantees 
as  to  his  breeding  ability.  No  progress  whatever  will  be  made 
by  using  other  than  a  purebred  bull  and  continuing  in  the  same 
breed  when  future  herd-headers  are  selected.  The  grading-up 
process  must  be  continued,  and  where  this  has  been  done  through 
a  number  of  generations,  herds  will  be  found  that  are,  for  all 
intents  and  purposes,  purebred  so  far  as  production  for  the 
market  is  concerned. 

One  of  the  most  notable  examples  of  the  value  of  purebred 
bulls  as  herd  improvers  is  that  afforded  by  the  history  of  cattle 
breeding  on  western  ranges.  Beginning  with  the  old  Texas 
long-horn  stock  which  formed  the  foundation  of  range  herds, 
successive  crosses  of  purebred  sires  brought  remarkable  im- 
provement in  the  beef-making  qualities  of  western  cattle.  (See 
Figs.  27  and  28  in  preceding  chapter.) 

As  to  what  price  the  breeder  is  justified  in  paying  for  a 
bull,  that  will  vary  depending  upon  the  conditions.  Some  very 
satisfactory  bulls  have  been  bought  at  very  moderate  prices. 
In  grading  up  western  range  cattle,  high-priced,  prize- winning 
bulls  have  been  purchased  in  a  number  of  instances  and  the 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


129 


bull  turned  out  on  the  range  as  his  pedigree  burned  in  the  office 
stove.  If  a  full  quota  of  cows  is  at  hand  for  breeding,  not  less 
than  $150  should  be  invested  in  a  bull,  and  more  often  it  will 
be  advisable  to  pay  $200,  $250,  or  more,  rather  than  $150.  A 
small  increase  in  the  value  per  head  of  one  season's  crop  of  calves 
by  the  use  of  the  higher-priced  bull,  as  compared  with  the  cheap 
one,  will  return  the  difference  in  the  price  of  the  two  animals. 
Furthermore,  when  the  heifer  calves  by  the  higher-priced  sire 
are  gone  over  with  a  view  to  keeping  out  certain  ones  for  use 
in  the  breeding  herd,  there  will  result  a  herd  of  higher  average 
merit  than  otherwise,  and  improvement  thereafter  will  be  doubly 
fast.  The  man  who  sees  no  further  than  first  cost  when  pur- 
chasing a  bull  is  surely  doomed  to  failure.  As  to  which  breed 
of  beef  cattle  to  use  for  market  production,  that  is  a  matter  to 
be  decided  somewhat  by  the  conditions,  but  it  is  largely  a  matter 
of  personal  preference.  Each  breed  has  its  own  special  advan- 
tages, and  there  is  no  best  breed  of  beef  cattle. 

The  following  table*  gives  the  averages  by  states  of  an- 
swers made  by  western  stockmen  in  1915  to  the  questions  indi- 
cated by  the  headings  of  the  various  columns  in  the  table.  This 
table  furnishes  ample  proof  of  the  fact  that  the  average  value  of 
the  live  stock  of  a  community  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  value 
of  the  sires  used.  "A  stream  can  rise  no  higher  than  its  source." 


State 

Average 
no.  of  bulls 
per  100  cows 

Average 
value 
of  bulls 

Average 
no.  of  calves 
per  100  cows 

Average    weight     of 
steers    sold    from 
range  or  pasture 

Long  2-yr.- 
old 

Long  3-yr.- 
old 

Ariz.  .  . 
Cal.  . 

6.00 
3.73 
4.16 
4.00 
3.44 
4.00 
5.00 
4.  04 
4.00 
3.72 
5.52 

$82.00 
94.75 
131.90 
100.00 
138.00 
93.00 
83.00 
113.35 
93.00 
124.15 
160.50 

57.00 
73.55 
69.30 
75.00 
75.80 
70.00 
66.00 
75.74 
69.00 
79.48 
73.20 

774.0 
968.2 
883.0 
1000.0 
991.0 
940.0 
725.0 
975.7 
900.0 
1032.0 
937.0 

935.0 
1141.6 
1084.5 
1200.0 
1211.0 
1140.0 
934.0 
1186.0 
1085.0 
1225.0 
1155.0 

Col  
Idaho  
Mont  
Nev  
N.  M  
Ore  
Utah  
Wash  
Wyo  

Arizona  and  New  Mexico  use  the  most  bulls  and  the  cheap- 
est bulls.  These  states  are  credited  with  the  fewest  calves  and 
the  steers  produced  are  markedly  inferior  in  weight  at  two  and 


*  Compiled  from  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Report  110,  by  W.  C.  Barnes  and 
J.  T.  Jardine. 


130         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

three  years  of  age.  Such  factors  as  climate,  feed  supply,  and 
method  of  management  affect  the  character  and  value  of  cattle 
produced  on  the  range,  yet  the  predominating  factor,  as  shown 
by  the  above  table,  is  that  of  good  breeding.  Those  states 
rank  highest  which  use  the  best  breeding  stock.  The  importance 
of  good  breeding  is  again  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico  the  more  progressive  stockmen  have  spent 
large  sums  in  purchasing  good  bulls  and  this  has  resulted  in  a 
decided  improvement  in  the  grade  of  stock  on  the  public  ranges 
in  those  states  within  the  last  few  years.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  of  the  smaller  men  either  turn  out  scrubs  or  else  have  no 
bulls  at  all,  and  this  keeps  down  the  averages. 

The  producer  of  feeding  cattle  secures  his  bulls  from  breeders 
who  maintain  herds  of  purebred  and  registered  beef  cattle. 
These  are  the  sources  of  all  that  is  good  in  beef  cattle,  their 
function  being  to  produce  sires  to  be  used  to  grade  up  the  common 
cattle  of  the  country.  Hence  a  knowledge  of  market  require- 
ments is  very  essential  to  the  breeder  of  pedigreed  beef  cattle, 
for  he  is  engaged,  indirectly,  but  most  certainly,  in  the  produc- 
tion of  cattle  for  the  open  market.  The  breeder  of  registered 
cattle  who  ignores  the  requirements  of  the  open  market  will 
never  be  able  to  build  up  an  active  demand  for  his  stock,  because 
the  mere  fact  that  an  animal  is  purebred  and  registered  does  not 
suffice.  Buyers  usually  insist  that  a  thoroughly  useful  animal 
shall  accompany  the  pedigree,  and  the  inferior  animal,  no  matter 
how  glowing  his  family  history,  does  not  receive  serious  atten- 
tion or  approval. 

Fancy,  purebred,  registered  beef  cows  and  bulls  frequently 
sell  for  $1,000  or  more,  and  wonder  is  sometimes  expressed  that 
a  bull  or  cow  can  command  such  a  price.  Only  when  it  is  under- 
stood that  the  sons  and  daughters  of  these  high-priced  animals 
will  not  be  sold  to  the  butcher,  but  will  be  used  as  breeding 
animals  in  herds  that  produce  cattle  for  the  butcher,  is  it  real- 
ized that  such  prices  do  not  necessarily  represent  a  foolish  waste 
of  money.  It  may  be  several  years  before  many  descendants 
of  such  an  animal  reach  the  market,  they  being  multiplied  in 
the  meantime,  but  when  the  market  finally  feels  the  good  influ- 
ence of  such  an  animal,  the  benefits  usually  more  than  justify 
the  price  of  the  original  bull  or  cow. 

In  selecting  beef  animals  for  breeding  purposes,  the  breeder 
must  not  only  emphasize  those  points  which  are  important  to 
the  feeder  and  butcher,  but  must  keep  in  mind  his  own  interests 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         131 

as  well.  The  features  which  are  of  particular  interest  to  the 
breeder  are:  1.  The  possession  of  a  good  constitution.  2. 
Thick  natural  flesh.  3.  Quick  maturity.  The  first  of  these 
is  also  of  much  importance  to  the  feeder,  the  second  interests 
all  parties  concerned  with  beef  cattle,  and  the  third  interests 
both  the  breeder  and  feeder.  Constitution  is  of  the  greatest 
importance,  for  it  guarantees  thrift  and  vigorous  reproduction. 
It  is  the  cornerstone  of  the  successful  herd.  By  thick  natural 
flesh  is  meant  a  full  muscular  development  such  as  will  expand 
into  a  maximum  fleshing  when  the  animal  is  fattened.  Quick 
maturity  makes  possible  a  finish  at  an  early  age,  and  this  prime 
essential  in  present-day  beef  production  is  characteristic  of  cattle 
that  have  the  blocky,  compact,  low-set  type.  Long  bodied, 
long  legged  animals  attain  large  size,  but  are  difficult  to  fatten 
before  they  are  mature,  and  they  mature  late. 

When  cattle  intended  for  breeders  are  in  high  condition, 
the  standards  for  weights  at  various  ages  are  as  follows: 

Weights  of  Weights  of 

Months  bulls  cows 

6                                          600  500 

12 1075  750 

18 1275  975 

24 1500  1150 

30 ..1800  1350 

36 1975  1475 

42 2100  1550 

The  above  figures  are  for  purebred  bulls  and  high-grade 
cows  such  as  should  be  used  in  market  beef  breeding  herds. 
The  weights  given  for  bulls  thus  represent  higher  standards 
than  those  for  the  cows.  The  difference  in  the  matured  weights 
of  the  two  sexes  as  given  above,  while  largely  due  to  sex,  is  due 
in  part  to  higher  average  merit  in  the  bulls  than  in  the  cows. 

The  beef  bull. — In  general  appearance  the  beef  bull  is 
identical  with  the  steer,  being  wide,  deep,  compact,  and  low  set. 
When  in  use  as  breeders,  bulls  are  seldom  kept  in  high  condition, 
hence  in  studying  the  form  certain  allowances  should  be  made 
for  lack  of  fatness,  as  this  has  much  to  do  with  the  appearance 
of  blockiness  and  massiveness  presented  by  the  animal.  The 
bull  should  have  plenty  of  size  and  we  should  not  demand  the 
same  degree  of  refinement  in  bone  that  is  desired  in  the  steer, 
yet  quality  should  be  easily  apparent.  The  hide  should  roll 
up  mellow  and  loose  in  the  hand,  showing  medium  thickness, 
and  the  hair  should  be  soft  and  fine.  Even  when  in  a  medium- 


132 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


fat  condition,  the  fleshing  should  be  abundant  and  smooth. 
The  head  should  be  clean-cut,  wide,  and  short,  but  larger  than 
the  steer's,  with  heavier  horns,  and  a  more  burly  appearance 
generally.  The  eye  shows  more  animation  or  spirit,  and  a 
more  resolute  expression.  Such  a  head  is  indicative  of  mas- 
culinity which  is  insisted  upon  by  all  breeders,  it  being  an  evi- 
dence of  potency  or  breeding  capacity.  The  bull  at  maturity 
should  show  a  powerfully  muscled  neck  with  a  pronounced  arch 
or  crest,  this  also  indicating  masculinity.  The  crest  should 
come  forward  close  to  the  head,  and  the  neck  should  be  short. 


Fig.  37.     Correct  Type  in  the  Beef  Sire. 

Erwin  C.,  Champion  Aberdeen-Angus  bull  at  the  1913  International, 
owned  by  Mr.  W.  A.  McHenry,  Denison,  la. 

Masculinity  is  again  shown  in  the  shoulders  by  a  heavier,  more 
massive  development  than  is  found  in  the  steer,  yet  this  does 
not  excuse  a  rough,  prominent  shoulder  such  as  would  be  trouble- 
some in  the  offspring  when  they  are  fed  for  market. 

The  entire  front  of  the  bull  is  well  developed  and  massive, 
a  condition  which  is  inherited  by  domesticated  bulls  from  their 
wild  ancestors.  In  the  wild  state,  a  bull  became  the  head  of 
the  herd  only  by  right  of  conquest,  and  his  burly  head,  heavy 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         133 

horns,  muscular  neck,  and  massive  front  were  needed  to  defeat 
his  male  rivals,  and  to  protect  the  herd  from  its  enemies  after 
he  had  gained  leadership.  It  was  a  survival  of  the  fittest,  which 
is  nature's  method  of  improving  the  wild  animals.  Under  domes- 
tication, the  masculine  characters  have  not  the  same  values  as 
in  the  wild  state,  yet  they  are  none  the  less  valuable,  because 
they  indicate  a  rugged,  vigorous,  and  potent  animal — qualities 
highly  prized  by  any  breeder.  A  wide,  deep  chest  and  full 
middle  insure  a  good  constitution.  The  middle  is  identical  in 
form  with  the  middle  of  the  steer,  but  more  emphasis  is  placed 
upon  straightness  and  strength  of  back.  The  hips  should  be 
smooth,  and  the  hindquarters  should  be  long,  level,  wide,  and 
heavily  fleshed. 

Great  variation  will  be  found  in  the  manner  in  which  bulls 
walk,  some  doing  it  awkwardly  and  clumsily,  with  the  back 
humped  to  a  marked  degree,  and  with  the  legs  sprawling;  others 
are  active  in  their  movements,  keeping  their  legs  under  them, 
and  carrying  themselves  with  little  apparent  effort,  the  latter 
of  course  being  much  preferred.  Style  has  market  value  in  a 
bull  as  in  a  steer,  and  between  an  animal  that  stands  and  walks 
gracefully,  and  one  that  slouches,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
former  will  sell  much  more  readily  if  they  are  priced  the  same, 
and  his  calves  will  more  quickly  attract  buyers  when  they  reach 
the  market.  Before  purchasing  a  bull,  the  cows  in  the  herd 
should  be  carefully  studied  and  their  weaknesses  noted,  so  that 
a  bull  may  be  selected  that  is  strong  in  the  points  where  the 
cows  show  weakness. 

A  beef  bull,  well  developed  at  a  year  old,  may  serve  a  few 
cows,  but  should  as  a  rule  be  eighteen  months  old.  An  ordinarily 
vigorous  mature  bull  will  get  100  calves  a  year  if  the  cows  come 
to  him  at  proper  intervals,  but  when  they  are  nearly  all  bred 
in  the  spring  and  in  the  fall  probably  60  is  about  the  usual  limit. 

The  beef  breeding  cow  or  heifer. — Cows  reach  maturity 
quicker  than  bulls,  but  do  not  attain  as  much  size  or  weight. 
They  show  more  refinement  at  all  points  than  do  males,  but 
in  form  and  fleshing  are  nearly  identical  with  all  good  beef 
animals  regardless  of  sex.  In  selecting  cows,  emphasis  is  placed 
upon  constitution,  thick  natural  flesh,  quick  maturity,  and 
feminine  character.  The  head  shows  marked  refinement,  and 
there  is  a  calm  expression  of  the  eye,  showing  a  much  milder 
disposition  than  the  bull.  As  compared  with  steers,  the  horns 
,are  less  developed,  and  the  neck  is  not  so  thick  and  perhaps 


134 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


not  quite  so  short.  The  shoulders  are  well  laid  in  and  smooth, 
and  throughout  the  forequarters  there  is  an  absence  of  the  great 
strength  and  massiveness  found  in  the  bull.  The  refinement 
of  the  cow's  head,  neck,  and  shoulders  is  an  evidence  of  femininity, 
which,  like  masculinity  in  the  male,  is  evidence  of  breeding 
capacity.  "Motherly"  looking  cows,  not  too  compact  in  form, 
are  wanted.  A  coarse,  "steery"  headed  female  is  seldom  a  suc- 
cessful breeder.  Although  she  may  produce  a  calf  each  year,  her 
stock  is  not  likely  to  possess  the  high  qualities  that  one  expects. 


Fig.  38.     Correct  Type  in  the  Beef  Cow. 

Fair  Start  2d.,  a  famous  Shorthorn  show  cow,  owned  by  Mr.  George 
J.  Sayer,  McHenry,  111. 

A  straight,  strong  back  and  wide,  deep  middle  are  as  desir- 
able  in  the  cow  as  in  the  bull  or  steer,  indeed  even  more  so,  as 
a  capacious  middle  provides  ample  room  for  carrying  the  calf. 
Cows  should  be  a  little  longer  in  the  middle,  a  little  less  compact 
in  other  words,  than  steers  and  bulls.  The  hips  are  notably 
different,  showing  more  width  and  prominence,  and  this  feature 
is  often  so  pronounced  as  to  cause  criticism.  While  a  wider  hip 
is  accepted  in  cows  than  in  other  beef  animals,  nevertheless  care 
should  be  taken  to  guard  against  undue  prominence.  Cows  are- 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         135 

also  usually  shorter  and  rougher  in  the  rump  than  bulls,  but  the 
rump  should  be  as  long,  level,  wide,  and  smoothly  fleshed  as  possible. 

So  far  as  condition  is  concerned,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  breeding  cow  is  more  valuable  on  account  of  the  progeny 
she  produces  than  on  account  of  her  own  excellence  as  an  animal 
suitable  for  slaughter,  hence  we  do  not  fault  her  if  she  lacks  in 
fatness,  provided  her  constitution,  form,  and  quality  are  good. 
However,  the  beef  cow  must  possess  the  ability  to  fatten  readily 
when  put  on  heavy  feed,  for  "like  produces  like,"  and  if  the  cow 
will  not  take  on  flesh  readily,  then  we  cannot  expect  her  calves 
to  be  profitable  in  the  feed-lot.  It  is  on  this  account  that  beef 
breeding  bulls  and  cows  are  shown  in  heavy  flesh  in  the  show 
ring,  thus  indicating  their  capacity  as  beef  producers.  Beef 
cows  are  sometimes  made  so  fat  for  showing  that  their  usefulness 
as  breeders  is  injured  by  a  heavy  deposit  of  fat  about  the  genera- 
tive organs.  The  practice  has,  therefore,  been  severely  criti- 
cized, yet  the  danger  is  not  great  if  the  feeding  is  carefully 
managed,  and  the  advantages  so  far  outweigh  the  disadvantages 
that  the  showing  of  breeding  animals  in  high  condition  seems 
destined  to  continue. 

In  the  show  ring,  little  or  no  attention  is  paid  to  the  udder 
of  the  beef  cow,  but  the  man  who  breeds  beef  cattle  cannot 
ignore  the  cow's  milk-producing  qualities.  The  udder  should 
be  of  good  size  and  shape,  with  well-placed  teats,  and  the  cow 
should  be  able  to  furnish  ample  milk  for  her  calf  during  at  least 
the  first  six  months  of  lactation.  E.  S.  Bayard,  a  breeder  of 
beef  cattle  and  Editor  of  the  National  Stockman  and  Farmer, 
has  the  following  to  say  regarding  the  selection  of  beef  cows 
and  the  importance  of  good  milking  qualities* — "Good-sized, 
roomy,  robust  cows;  with  breadth  but  not  coarseness;  big  of 
barrel,  loose  of  hide,  short  of  leg,  neat  of  head,  mild  of  manner, 
placid  of  countenance,  with  a  decidedly  feminine  expression, 
are  the  kind.  Cows  that  are  good  milkers,  as  a  rule,  are  good 
and  regular  breeders — they  do  not  get  too  fat  to  breed.  Her 
calf  is  started  well,  is  kept  going,  and  develops  rapidly,  for  there 
is  no  feed  for  a  calf  or  any  other  animal  that  will  take  the  place 
of  mother's  milk.  The  cows  which  milk  most  and  lose  flesh 
most  rapidly  when  suckling  calves  are  the  quickest-fleshing 
cows.  They  milk  down  rapidly  and  they  recover  flesh  quickly 
when  relieved  of  the  strain  of  milk  production.  This  character- 


*  Perm.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  235. 


136 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


istic  of  quick  fleshing  usually  accompanies  good  milking,  but 
not  persistent  milking  of  course.  Beef -bred  cows  are  not,  as  a 
rule,  all-the-year  milkers,  nor  is  it  desirable  that  they  should  be. 
Milk  enough  is  vital  to  success,  and  breeders  of  beef  cattle  can- 
not afford  to  neglect  it  any  more  than  they  can  afford  to  make 
it  a  leading  object  of  their  breeding.  So  get  lady  cows,  femi- 
nine type,  with  good  udders,  and  they  can  be  found  in  all  the 
beef  breeds.  Let  the  steery  cow  alone  as  you  would  the  bull 
that  lacks  masculinity." 

The  cows  which  raise  good  calves  should  be  retained  in  the 
herd  as  long  as  they  are  useful,  and  those  which  fail  to  produce 


Fig.  39.     An  Excellent  Breeding  Cow. 

Blackbird  Perfection  2d.,  Aberdeen-Angus  cow  owned  by  Iowa  State 
College.  Beefy  throughout,  yet  not  milkless.  She  has  good  udder  develop- 
ment and  can  raise  her  calf. 

good  offspring  should  be  sent  to  the  butcher  no  matter  how 
attractive  they  may  be  individually.  The  attractive  fat  cow 
that  gives  no  milk  and  raises  a  small,  scrawny  calf  is  not  worthy 
of  a  place  in  the  herd,  whereas  some  of  the  good  mothers  may 
nurse  down  pretty  thin  and  look  rather  unattractive  after  they 
have  suckled  their  calves  for  a  time.  When  a  cattle  breeder 
designates  his  plainest-looking  cows  as  the  best  producers  in  his 
herd,  he  is  often  fully  justified  in  doing  so.  Save  those  that 
are  best  by  test,  and  replace  the  unprofitable  cows  with  the 
best  of  the  crop  of  heifers. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         137 

In  many  instances,  heifers  are  bred  at  15  to  18  months  old, 
but  it  is  better  practice  to  begin  breeding  them  at  about  21 
months  so  that  they  drop  their  first  calves  at  about  30  months. 
The  period  of  gestation  often  varies  from  274  to  287  days,  and 
the  average  is  about  280  days. 

Value  of  records. — The  possibilities  for  better  agriculture 
through  the  application  of  business  methods  to  farming  are 
very  great,  and  this  is  especially  true  of  live-stock  farming. 
The  feeder  ought  to  weigh  his  cattle  regularly,  and  keep  careful 
and  complete  records  of  the  weights  and  of  all  items  of  expense 
incurred  in  finishing  and  marketing,  so  that  he  may  know  whether 
his  cattle  return  him  a  profit  or  were  fed  at  a  loss.  In  either 
case,  the  records  are  available  for  study,  and  when  the  next  lot 
is  fed,  comparisons  may  be  made  and  benefits  derived  from  past 
experiences.  This  is  all  the  more  important  in  the  case  of  feeders 
who  breed  their  own  calves,  for  then  such  records  are  doubly 
valuable  as  they  greatly  assist  in  determining  the  producing 
qualities  of  the  various  animals  in  the  breeding  herd.  If  the 
breeder  has  records  showing  the  gains  made,  the  cost  of  the  gains, 
the  market  prices  received,  and  the  dressing  percentages  of 
various  calves  from  various  cows  and  by  various  bulls,  he  has 
the  best  possible  measure  of  the  worth  of  his  herd-  bull  and  his 
breeding  cows.  If  such  records  are  complete  they  permit  com- 
parisons of  one  cow  with  another  and  one  bull  with  another, 
thus  indicating  what  animals  should  be  retained  as  breeders  and 
what  ones  discarded.  If  the  breeder  has  a  chance  to  see  the 
carcasses  yielded  by  fat  cattle  of  his  own  breeding,  he  should 
most  certainly  avail  himself  of  it  and  talk  with  some  well-quali- 
fied butcher  regarding  their  merits  and  faults.  By  such  pro- 
gressive methods  will  the  breeder  forge  ahead  and  obtain  the 
maximum  profit  and  satisfaction  from  his  business. 

In  conclusion,  there  is  good  opportunity  for  profit  in  beef 
production,  and  the  soil  needs  the  fertility  which  comes  from 
the  keeping  of  live  stock.  The  factors  necessary  to  insure 
success  in  beef  production  are  (1)  good  blue-grass  pastures, 
(2)  better  care  of  pastures,  (3)  utilization  of  corn  stalks  through 
the  use  of  a  silo^build  a  silo,  (4)  the  growing  and  feeding  of 
alfalfa,  (5)  keeping  the  best  heifer  calves  for  breeding  purposes, 
(6)  buying  only  good,  purebred,  beef  bulls  to  mate  with  them, 
and  (7)  staying  by  beef  production  year  in  and  year  out,  making 
it  a  permanent  part  of  farming  operations. 


CHAPTER  X. 
DAIRY  TYPE. 

Dairy  animals  that  are  correct  in  type  present  a  marked 
contrast  to  beef  animals.  The  body  and  back  are  longer  and 
much  narrower,  the  thighs  are  thin,  the  neck  longer  and  more 
slender,  and  in  all  parts  the  animal  is  lean  and  angular,  whereas 
the  beef  animal  is  thick-fleshed  and  smooth.  The  dairy  animal 
should  present  a  muscular  appearance,  without  being  at  all 
beefy,  but  should  not  be  so  low  in  flesh  as  to  present  an  emaciated 
appearance.  Both  males  and  females  are  rather  sharp  at  the 
withers,  deep  ribbed,  fairly  short  of  leg,  and  are  well  divided 
between  the  hind  legs.  There  should  be  no  bulge  to  the  thigh, 
and  no  tendency  toward  the  development  of  what  is  called  the 
twist  in  beef  cattle.  There  is  a  limit  to  an  animal's  feeding  and 
digestive  capacity,  hence  one  animal  cannot  produce  both  beef 
and  milk  in  maximum  quantities.  Breeders  of  dairy  cattle 
want  the  dairy  cow  to  do  one  thing  only;  they  discriminate 
against  beefiness  just  as  sharply  as  they  favor  evidences  of 
large  milking  capacity. 

The  Dairy  Cow. 

Dairy  cows  may  be  judged  by  two  distinct  methods.  One 
method  consists  of  keeping  records  of  the  cow's  production, 
including  the  duration  of  the  lactation  periods,  the  pounds  of 
milk  given  at  each  milking,  and  the  results  of  the  Babcock  tests 
for  butter-fat.  Records  may  also  be  kept  of  the  quantities 
of  feed  consumed  and  the  cost  of  the  feed-stuffs  used,  so  that 
at  the  end  of  each  year  an  accounting  may  be  made  with  each 
cow,  and  her  profitableness  or  unprofitableness  accurately 
determined.  This  method  gets  right  at  the  cow's  producing 
capacity  and  removes  all  doubt  concerning  her  right  to  a  place 
in  a  producing  herd.  It  is  also  much  used  in  estimating  a  cow's 
value  for  breeding  purposes.  This  method  may  be  called  judg- 
ing by  performance. 

Breeders  of  dairy  cattle  have  an  advantage  over  breeders 
of  beef  cattle,  it  being  difficult  for  the  latter  to  obtain  complete 
records  of  performance.  A  slaughter  test  fully  reveals  a  beef 

138 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


139 


animal's  capacity  as  a  meat  producer,  and  records  of  the  cost 
of  feed  and  labor  may  be  as  easily  kept  as  for  dairy  animals, 
but  after  the  beef  animal  has  demonstrated  its  value  on  the 
block  it  is  no  longer  available  for  breeding  purposes.  However, 
calves  by  a  certain  bull  or  from  a  certain  cow  may  be  slaughtered 
and  records  made  which  will  help  to  reveal  the  worth  of  that 
particular  bull  or  cow;  but  this  is  much  more  troublesome  and 
expensive  than  the  testing  of  dairy  cows,  and  the  resulting  records 
are  more  meager  and  less  significant.  Beef  producers  must  rely 
upon  the  hand  and  eye  in  valuing  their  cattle,  and  upon  such 
records  as  the  gains  made,  costs  of  gains,  prices  received  for 
animals  sent  to  market,  and  the  dressing  percentages. 


9.  Neck 
10.  Throat 
11.  Dewlap 
12.  Brisket 
13.  Shoulder 
14.  Withers 
15.  Foreleg 
16.  Fore-rib 

17.  Ribs 
18.  Back 
19.  Loin 
20.  Barrel 
21.  Hip  or  hook 
22.  Rump 
23.  Pin  bones 
24.  Tail 

25.  Thigh 
26.  Hind  leg 
27.  Udder 
28.  Teats 
29.  Milk-vein 
30.  Milk-well 
31.  Navel 

Fig.  40.     Points  of  the  Dairy  Cow. 

1.  Muzzle 

2.  Face 

3.  Eye 

4.  Forehead 

5.  Ear 

6.  Poll 

7.  Cheek 

8.  Jaw 

The  other  method  of  judging  dairy  cows  consists  of  a  de- 
tailed study  of  the  animal,  and  an  examination  for  certain  char- 
acteristics which  are  evidences  of  milk-producing  capacity.  If 
the  fifty  highest-producing  dairy  cows  in  the  United  States 
were  assembled  so  that  comparisons  might  easily  be  made, 
considerable  variation  would  be  found  among  them  in  form, 
quality,  udder,  and  other  points.  Yet  through  all  these  cows 


140         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

would  run  certain  well-defined  characteristics  which  dairymen 
have  come  to  know  are  associated  with  heavy  production.  These 
characteristics  may  be  causes  of  the  heavy  yield,  or  merely 
incidental  correlates,  but  in  either  case  they  are  evidences  of 
productive  capacity,  and  are  valuable  aids  in  judging  dairy 
cows.  Many  dairymen  keep  no  records  of  the  production  in 
their  herds,  and  rely  solely  upon  an  examination  of  the  individ- 
uality when  additional  cows  are  purchased.  There  are  other 
men  who  ridicule  the  idea  of  judging  a  cow  by  any  other  means 
than  records  of  her  performance;  they  will  tell  you  of  cows 
which  score  high  but  are  poor  yielders,  and  of  other  cows  which 
score  low  but  are  big  producers.  However,  such  instances  are 
exceptional  and  should  not  dislodge  one's  faith  in  the  value  of 
studying  the  individuality  of  dairy  cows.  No  doubt  it  is  wrong 
to  rely  solely  upon  either  method  of  judging,  for  the  two  methods 
may  be  combined  to  the  advantage  of  each,  and  in  this  way  the 
best  estimate  of  the  value  of  a  dairy  cow  is  made. 

The  form  of  the  high-class  dairy  cow  is  that  of  a  triple- 
wedge.  One  wedge  is  apparent  from  a  side  view;  the  cow  is 
much  deeper  behind  than  in  front,  so  that  if  the  top  line  and 
underline  were  continued  on  forward  they  would  meet  at  a  point 
not  far  in  front  of  the  animal.  The  secpncMvedge  is  formed 
by  a  widening  from  breast  to  hindquartel-sVlso  that  the  side  lines 
rapidly  converge  if  they  are  carried  out  in  front  of  the  cow. 
These  two  wedges  are  sometimes  secured,  in  part  at  least,  by  a 
lack  of  width  and  depth  in  the  chest,  whereas  they  should  result 
solely  because  of  much  width  and  depth  of  barrel,  thus  giving 
the  needed  digestive  capacity.  Although  the  wedge  form  is 
characteristic  of  the  dairy  cow,  it  is  not  valuable  in  itself,  and 
the  mere  fact  that  a  cow  has  it  is  not  sufficient.  The  examination 
should  go  deeper;  the  wedges  should  be  analyzed  and  their  causes 
determined.  The  third  wedge  is  formed  by  the  shoulders  and 
withers;  the  withers  constitute  the  point  of  the  wedge,  and 
the  shoulders  widen  out  below  to  provide  the  necessary  chest 
capacity.  This  wedge  insures  against  coarseness  at  the  withers 
and  heavy  fleshing  on  the  shoulders.  The  general  form  of  the 
cow  is  very  angular  throughout,  due  to  a  well-developed  frame 
and  the  presence  of  but  little  flesh  to  give  smoothness  to  the 
parts.  Some  allowance,  however,  must  be  made  for  sex  and 
age;  we  naturally  expect  more  fleshing  in  the  bull  than  in  the 
cow  in  milk,  and  the  same  is  true  of  young  heifers  before  their 
first  calving,  and  also  of  dry  cows.  Some  dairymen  make  an 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


141 


effort  to  fatten  dry  cows,  for  the  added  body  fat  is  resorbed  and 
converted  into  butter-fat  when  the  cow  again  comes  in  milk, 
thus  temporarily  raising  the  percentage  of  butter-fat  above  the 
normal.  These  features,  however,  do  not  excuse  any  persistent 
beefy  tendency  in  dairy  animals,  it  being  distinctly  objectionable. 
The  head  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  lean,  and  have  a  broad 
muzzle,  large  nostrils,  and  a  dished  face.  Compared  with  the 
head  of  the  beef  animal,  there  is  less  width  and  more  length, 
the  proportions  of  the  head  being  described  as  medium  long 
and  medium  broad.  The  eyes  should  be  prominent,  bright, 
calm,  and  wide  apart,  and  the  forehead  should  be  fairly  wide. 
The  jaws  should  be  strong,  and  the  cheeks  well  muscled.  The 


Fig.  41.     A  Dairy  Cow  with  Utility  Points  Emphasized. 

Hotetein-Friesian  cow,  Chloe  Artis  Jewel.  Correct  form,  strong  con- 
stitution, large  feeding  capacity,  good  quality,  good  dairy  temperament, 
and  exceptional  mammary  development  are  all  evident  in  this  cow.  Note 
especially  her  wonderful  mammary  veins.  Owned  by  Mr.  C.  A.  Nelson, 
Waverly,  la. 

ears  should  be  fine  in  texture,  and  of  medium  size.  The  horns 
should  be  fine  and  have  a  curve  that  adds  to,  rather  than  detracts 
from,  the  appearance.  In  Guernsey  cattle,  a  yellowish  secre- 
tion of  the  skin  inside  of  the  ear,  and  a  waxy  color  of  the  horn 
are  often  regarded  as  evidence  that  the  butter  will  have  a  rich, 
golden  color.  The  head  should  have  a  distinctly  feminine 
expression,  and  in  all  its  features  should  be  clean-cut  and  sharply 
defined.  Such  a  head  has  a  chiseled  appearance  indicative  of 
quality  and  good  breeding. 


142 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  neck  should  be  long  and  fine.  The  upper  edge  has  a 
slight  concave  curve,  and  the  lower  border  has  a  thin  fold  or 
edge  of  skin,  called  the  "dewlap,"  extending  upwards  from  the 
brisket.  If  the  neck  is  short  and  thick,  or  has  much  depth, 
so  as  to  make  it  appear  heavy,  there  is  a  lack  of  true  dairy  type. 
The  throat  should  be  neat  and  trim,  rather  than  full.  Naturally 
we  do  not  want  the  neck  and  shoulders  to  blend  smoothly  as  in 
beef  cattle,  for  this  results  from  heavy  fleshing. 

The  brisket  of  the  dairy  cow  is  much  narrower  and  sharper 
than  in  beef  cattle,  and  does  not  carry  forward  so  prominently, 
the  difference  being  mainly  due  to  the  heavy  fleshing  of  the 
beef  animal. 


Fig.  42.     A  Combination  of  Beauty  and  Utility. 

Jersey  cow,  Bosnian's  Anna,  Champion  at  the  National  Dairy  Show. 
Her  chiseled,  feminine  head,  straight  top  line,  deep  rib,  nicely  balanced  udder, 
and  large  veins  are  all  noteworthy.  She  is  especially  strong  in  temperament 
and  quality.  Note  also  the  correlation  between  levelness  of  rump  and  level- 
ness  of  udder.  Owned  by  Mr.  C.  I.  Hudson,  East  Norwich,  L.  I.,  N.  Y. 

The  shoulders  should  be  light,  that  is,  free  from  heavy 
fleshing,  and  the  tops  of  the  shoulder  blades  and  the  spines  of  the 
vertebra  should  form  rather  sharp  and  refined  withers.  The 
shoulders  will  not  appear  smooth,  but  they  should  not  be  rough 
and  coarse.  A  rather  open,  loosely  connected  shoulder  is  asso- 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         143 

ciated  with  the  open- jointed  conformation  desired  in  the  dairy 
animal,  and  is  a  feature  found  in  many  of  the  record-holding 
cows. 

The  front  legs  should  be  fairly  short,  should  come  down 
straight,  and  the  toes  should  point  straight  ahead.  The  pas- 
terns should  be  strong.  There  should  be  no  coarseness  of  shanks 
or  joints.  Very  often  the  knees  come  quite  close  together,  the 
legs  being  crooked,  and  the  toes  turning  out,  but  this  is  a  faulty 
position  and  often  indicates  a  narrow  chest  and  lack  of  con- 
stitution. 

The  chest  gets  its  capacity  from  depth  more  than  from 
width.  However,  the  fore-rib  should  have  at  least  a  medium 
degree  of  arch;  breeders  of  Holstein-Friesian  cattle  place  much 
emphasis  upon  a  pronounced  arch  of  rib.  The  fore-rib  should 
carry  down  deep  to  give  plenty  of  room  for  the  heart  and  lungs. 
Beef  cattle  should  fill  up  full  and  smooth  with  flesh  behind  the 
shoulder,  but  dairy  cattle  typically  show  some  slight  depression 
just  behind  the  shoulder,  although  the  heart-girth  must  be  very 
large  to  insure  a  strong  constitution.  The  distance  between 
the  front  legs  is  a  fairly  accurate  measure  of  the  width  of  the 
chest  floor,  which  should  not  be  cramped,  but  ample,  with  the 
front  flanks  well  filled  out.  In  making  a  large  flow  of  milk, 
the  heart  has  to  pump  great  quantities  of  blood  which  the  lungs 
must  purify,  thus  demanding  that  the  dairy  cow  have  an  excel- 
lent constitution. 

The  back  should  be  straight  and  strong,  and  have  mod- 
erate width,  and  a  fair  degree  of  length.  Dairy  cattle  seem 
put  together  somewhat  loosely;  it  is  not  desired  that  they  should 
be  closely  coupled  or  short  in  the  back.  A  sway-back  is  some- 
times said  to  indicate  true  dairy  type,  but  there  is  no  good 
argument  in  support  of  this  view;  it  is  logical  that  cows  with 
big  middles  should  have  straight,  strong  tops.  Some  dairymen 
also  desire  that  the  backbone  shall  stand  up  prominently  along 
the  back,  loin,  and  rump,  and  terminate  in  a  long  tail.  The 
argument  is  that  a  well-developed  backbone  encloses  a  large 
spinal  cord,  and  as  a  large  nerve  branches  off  at  the  last  dorsal 
vertebrae  and  goes  to  the  udder  to  control  operations  there,  a 
large  spinal  column  is  accepted  as  evidence  of  proper  develop- 
ment of  the  nervous  system,  which,  in  turn,  is  supposed  to 
signify  increased  efficiency  on  the  part  of  the  cow  as  a  milk 
machine.  Whether  the  size  of  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  and  branch- 
ing nerves,  rather  than  their  quality  and  texture,  determines 


144 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  efficiency  of  the  nervous  system  may  be  questioned,  and 
as  for  the  course  of  reasoning  showing  the  relation  between 
length  of  tail  and  quantity  of  milk  yield,  the  reader  may  take  it 
for  what  he  deems  it  worth  and  form  his  own  conclusions.  In 
any  event,  there  are  many  other  ways  of  estimating  a  cow's 
value,  the  reliability  of  which  are  better  substantiated.  How- 
ever, a  prominent  backbone  is  valuable  as  an  evidence  of  true 
dairy  temperament,  or  freedom  from  beefiness. 

The  loin  should  be  rather  long,  should  carry  up  level  and 
strong,  and  show  a  fair  degree  of  width. 


Fig.  43.     Excellent  Type  in  the  Dairy  Cow. 

Ayrshire  cow,  Kilnford  Bell  3d.,  Champion  at  the  National  Dairy  Show 
in  1913  and  1914,  Note  the  beautiful  head  of  this  cow,  and  her  large,  shapely 
udder.  Her  conformation  indicates  strength  and  vigor  without  coarseness. 
Owned  by  Mr.  Adam  Seitz,  Waukesha,  Wis. 

The  barrel  ought  to  be  very  deep  and  wide,  and  this  is 
secured  when  the  ribs  are  very  long  and  reasonably  well  arched. 
There  will  be  no  such  degree  of  rotundity  as  is  found  in  beef 
cattle;  there  should  be  a  well-developed  paunch  with  a  capacity 
for  lots  of  feed.  A  flat-sided  conformation  means  a  restricted 
capacity  for  food.  The  ribs  do  not  lie  close  together  along  the  side 
as  in  beef  cattle,  and  there  is  more  space  between  the  last  rib  and 
the  hip.  Of  all  the  points  discussed  thus  far,  two  are  of  vast 
importance;  these  are  constitution  and  digestive  capacity.  The 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         145 

dairy  cow  is  a  milk  machine  and  should  be  studied  and  operated 
as  such.  It  is  thus  much  easier  to  put  emphasis  where  it  belongs 
and  so  arrive  more  quickly  at  the  true  worth  of  the  animaL 
Milk  is  manufactured  in  the  udder  from  nutriment  derived 
from  the  feed,  and  if  the  cow  has  the  true  dairy  temperament 
and  does  not  tend  to  take  on  flesh,  the  quantity  of  her  milk  yield 
will  be  in  direct  relation  to  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  feed 
consumed.  A  heavy  milk  flow  therefore  necessitates  full  de- 
velopment of  the  organs  of  digestion,  respiration,  and  circula- 
tion, the  external  evidences  of  which  are  a  large  heart-girth, 
a  large  barrel-girth,  and  a  rather  lengthy  middle. 

The  hips  are  very  prominent,  and  should  be  as  wide  as 
possible.  Narrowness  across  the  hips  is  often  associated  with 
a  lack  of  width  in  barrel,  and  when  the  hips  and  rump  are  nar- 
row, the  hind  legs  often  set  close  together,  leaving  little  space 
for  the  udder. 

The  rump  should  be  wide  and  level  to  insure  against  dif- 
ficulty in  calving,  and  should  not  rise  strongly  at  the  tail-head 
as  that  conformation  usually  goes  with  the  sway-back.  A  level 
rump  is  usually  associated  with  a  level  udder.  Length  of  rump 
is  also  very  desirable;  it  gives  symmetry  to  the  form,  and  pro- 
vides room  for  a  .long  udder-attachment  below.  A  narrow, 
peaked  rump  is  liable  to  cause  trouble  at  calving  time,  and,  as 
pointed  out,  it  brings  the  hind  legs  too  close  together.  At  the 
end  of  the  rump  on  either  side  of  the  tail  are  the  pin-bones. 
They  should  be  wide  apart,  for  reasons  similar  to  those  just 
mentioned.  From  the  point  of  the  hip  to  the  end  of  the  rump 
there  should  be  a  well-marked  hollow,  insuring  against  beefiness 
of  rump. 

The  tail  performs  a  part  in  milk  production  by  protecting 
from  the  annoyance  of  flies.  The  fleshy  part  of  the  tail  should 
extend  to  the  point  of  the  hock  and  the  brush  should  be  heavy 
and  long.  The  root  of  the  tail  should  be  carried  on  a  line  with 
the  rump,  showing  no  undue  prominence  or  roughness. 

The  thighs  should  be  muscular,  but  not  fleshy.  From  a 
rear  view  they  should  be  fine  and  there  should  be  no  fleshing 
between  the  legs  to  take  up  the  space  that  should  be  filled  by 
the  udder.  It  is  desirable  that  the  thighs  be  long,  and  that 
the  conformation  inside  the  thigh  be  incurving.  Much  varia- 
tion in  rumps  and  thighs  will  be  found  in  dairy  animals,  ranging 
from  decided  beefiness  to  the  trim,  clean-cut  conformation 
shown  by  the  best  dairy  cows. 


146         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  hind  legs  should  be  placed  well  apart,  and  they  should 
come  down  straight.  If  the 'toes  point  outward  and  the  hocks 
come  close  together,  the  conformation  is  weak  and  there  is  not 
sufficient  room  for  the  udder. 

The  udder  of  the  dairy  cow  comes  in  for  special  attention, 
ranking  in  importance  with  the  chest  and  barrel,  the  three  being 
fundamental  in  the  make-up  of  a  sucessful  dairy  cow.  The 
udder's  size,  texture,  shape,  and  teats  should  be  carefully  studied. 

Size  of  udder. — The  udder  should  be  large  in  circumfer- 
ence, carrying  well  forward  along  the  belly,  and  extending  by 
a  graceful  curve  high  up  between  the  hind  legs.  When  a  side 
view  of  the  cow  is  taken  as  she  stands  in  natural  position,  the 
udder  should  carry  out  far  in  front  of  the  hind  legs,  and  the 
swell  of  the  rear  quarters  of  the  udder  should  be  plainly  evident 
back  of  the  leg.  A  measurement  of  nearly  six  feet  around  the 
udder  has  been  reported,  just  two  inches  less  than  the  cow's 
heart-girth.  The  udders  of  heifers  are  often  deceptive,  having 
much  greater  capacity  than  the  exterior  indicates.  This  is 
because  the  udder  is  held  snugly  against  the  abdominal  wall; 
but  with  increase  in  age  and  yield  of  milk,  the  added  weight 
produces  some  relaxation  of  the  supporting  tissues,  and  the 
udder  becomes  more  pendulous  and  prominent. 

Texture  of  udder. — Two  sorts  of  tissue  mainly  compose 
the  udder — glandular  tissue  and  connective  tissue.  The  for- 
mer is  the  seat  of  secretory  activity,  and  the  latter  serves  the 
purpose  of  a  framework  or  support.  More  or  less  fatty  tissue 
is  also  present.  Naturally,  it  is  very  important  that  there  be 
a  large  proportion  of  glandular  tissue  and  a  relatively  small 
amount  of  connective  tissue.  This  is  determined  by  examining 
the  udder  with  the  hands  for  mellowness,  which  indicates  that 
the  udder  is  largely  glandular;  or  still  better  by  having  the  cow 
milked,  when  the  udder  should  show  much  decrease  in  size, 
and  the  skin  covering  it  should  shrivel.  When  the  udder  is 
composed  largely  of  connective  tissue,  if  feels  firm  and  is  referred 
to  as  "meaty,"  and  when  it  is  milked  out,  the  yield  of  milk  is 
small  and  the  udder  shows  little  or  no  decrease  in  size.  Unfor- 
tunately, meaty  udders  usually  excel  in  shape  and  appearance, 
while  the  most  glandular  ones  have  not  sufficient  connectiev 
tissue  to  properly  support  them,  the  heavy  weight  causing  them 
to  hang  down  rather  loosely  to  form  what  is  called  a  "pendant" 
udder.  Many  large  producers  have  such  udders,  whereas  it 
is  a  fact  that  the  type  of  udder  that  wins  in  the  show  ring  is 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         147 

often  lacking  in  milk  capacity.  The  skin  and  hair  covering  the 
udder  should  be  very  soft  and  fine.  Texture  of  udder  is  one 
of  the  most  important  considerations  in  judging  dairy  cows. 

Shape  of  udder. — All  sorts  of  sizes,  textures,  and  shapes 
are  presented.  The  most  desirable  shape  is  an  evenly  balanced 
udder,  with  all  four  quarters  fully  developed,  and  having  a  flat 
floor,  instead  of  being  cut  up  between  the  halves  and  quarters. 
There  is  a  natural  tendency  for  the  rear  quarters  to  develop 
much  more  than  the  front  quarters,  the  latter  often  terminating 
abruptly,  but  the  most  desirable  shape  is  one  extending  well 
forward  to  make  what  is  termed  a  balanced  udder.  Udders 
which  carry  neither  forward  nor  backward,  but  are  small  and 
tapering  from  base  to  teats,  without  any  fullness,  are  termed 
"funnel-shaped"  udders.  Undoubtedly  there  is  considerable 
correlation  between  shape  of  rump  and  shape  of  udder.  A  long 
rump  goes  with  a  long  udder,  a  wide  rump  with  a  wide  udder, 
and  a  level  rump  is  associated  with  a  level  udder  in  contrast 
to  the  tipped-up  form  of  udder  so  often  associated  with  a  droop- 
ing rump.  Shape  and  balance  of  udder  are  important,  but 
subsidiary  to  size  and  texture. 

The  teats  and  their  placement. — The  teats  should  be  cylin- 
drical, perpendicular,  hang  on  the  same  level,  and  be  placed  at 
least  six  inches  apart  each  way,  so  as  to  be  easily  grasped  in 
the  hand.  They  should  be  three  or  four  inches  long  and  of  a 
size  to  make  milking  easy,  but  not  too  large,  for  udders  with 
very  large  teats  are  usually  cut  up  between  the  halves  and  quar- 
ters, and  this  occurs  at  the  expense  of  glandular  tissue.  When 
dairy  cows  are  judged,  a  small  amount  of  milk  is  drawn  from 
each  teat  to  make  certain  that  the  teat  is  unobstructed  and 
free  from  defects  not  evident  to  the  eye.  Leaky  teats  are  due 
to  weakness  of  the  muscles  of  the  teat,  this  being  an  undesirable 
trait  rather  commonly  met  with,  especially  in  heavy  milkers 
just  before  milking  time.  Some  udders  have  not  only  four 
large  teats,  but  also  one  or  more  small  or  rudimentary  ones. 
A  small  amount  of  milk  may  sometimes  be  drawn  from  them, 
as  they  usually  spring  from  rudimentary  glands.  It  is  pre- 
ferred that  the  udder  have  four  full-sized  teats,  and  four  only. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  the  udder,  first  of  all, 
should  be  large;  second,  it  should  be  mellow  and  glandular; 
third,  it  should  be  well-balanced  and  of  good  shape;  fourth, 
the  teats  should  be  of  medium  size  and  placed  well  apart. 


148 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  milk-veins  are  large  veins  passing  forward  from  the 
udder  along  the  belly  just  beneath  the  skin,  and  disappearing 
through  openings  in  the  body- wall  known  as  milk- wells.  The 
position  of  the  milk- wells  varies;  some  are  near  the  fore  flanks, 
and  some  midway  between  the  udder  and  the  front  legs.  As 
will  be  explained  more  fully  later,  nutriment  derived  from  the 
food  is  carried  to  the  udder  by  the  blood  and  is  there  utilized 
in  the  manufacture  of  milk.  After  the  udder  has  absorbed  those 
elements  necessary  in  making  milk,  the  blood  returns  to  the 
heart  through  the  milk-veins.  It  is  evident  that  the  size  and 


Fig.  44.     An  Inferior  Dairy  Cow. 

Note  the  staggy  head,  coarse  neck,  uneven  top  line,  small  barrel,  coarse 
sloping  rump,  beefy  thighs,  and  small  funnel-shaped  udder.  Her  wedge 
from  the  side  view  points  the  wrong  way. 

development  of  these  veins  is  a  good  index  to  the  cow's  milking 
capacity,  hence  they  are  highly  useful  in  judging  dairy  cows. 
The  milk-veins  of  young  heifers  are  small  in  diameter  and  are 
straight.  As  the  heifer  develops  and  her  milk  flow  increases, 
the  veins  show  increase  in  diameter,  sometimes  to  an  inch  or 
more,  they  often  become  crooked  or  tortuous,  and  may  extend 
forward  toward  the  fore  flanks.  The  degree  of  tortuousness 
varies  according  to  the  vein's  diameter,  small  veins  being  nearly 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         149 

straight  and  large  ones  very  crooked  indeed.  There  will  be  at 
least  two  milk-veins,  one  on  each  side  of  the  belly,  and  some- 
times there  will  be  three,  the  third  one  having  a  position  on  the 
middle  of  the  abdomen  between  the  two  side  veins.  They 
sometimes  show  more  or  less  branching,  each  branch  passing 
forward  and  disappearing  through  its  own  milk- well.  Although 
diameter  of  veins  is  probably  most  important,  length  and  exten- 
sion of  veins  are  also  regarded  as  important,  indicating  an  in- 
creased venous  development  and  capacity  for  a  larger  flow  of 
blood,  due  to  the  added  number  of  milk-wells  which  make  easy 
the  work  of  handling  a  large  circulation.  Nearly  all  phenom- 
enal producers  have  veins  not  only  of  large  diameter  and  decided 
tortuousness,  but  also  of  many  branches  and  forward  exten- 
sions. Small  veins,  called  udder  veins,  occur  on  some  udders, 
their  presence  being  further  evidence  of  a  well-developed  mam- 
mary circulation. 

The  milk -wells  vary  in  size  to  correspond  with  the  veins, 
and  are  taken  into  account  in  judging.  They  should  be  large 
and  easily  indented  when  the  finger  is  applied  to  them.  They 
are  especially  valuable  in  estimating  the  milking  qualities  of  dry 
cows,  for  while  the  udder  and  milk-veins  are  much  decreased  in 
size  during  the  dry  period,  the  wells  maintain  their  usual  diameter. 

The  escutcheon  or  "milk  mirror"  is  that  portion  of  the  udder 
and  thighs  that  is  covered  with  hairs  turning  up  and  out,  in 
place  of  down,  as  on  the  rest  of  the  body.  A  Frenchman, 
Francois  Guenon,  beginning  in  1814  as  a  boy  of  fourteen  years, 
worked  out  in  great  detail  what  is  known  a&  the  Guenon  or 
-escutcheon  theory.  He  classified  cows  and  bulls  into  ten  orders 
and  each  of  these  again  into  four  grades,  depending  on  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  escutcheon.  To  each  of  these  orders  and  grades 
he  ascribed  certain  values.  He  also  attached  certain  values 
to  the  location  of  the  tufts,  ovals,  or  swirls  in  the  hair  on  the 
thighs,  making  seven  additional  classes  of  these.  Guenon 
claimed  to  be  able  to  tell  accurately  the  producing  ability  of 
the  cow,  and  it  is  said  that  in  tests  before  various  agricultural 
.societies  in  France  he  was  very  successful  in  proving  his  theory. 
The  escutcheon  theory  was  formerly  highly  credited  by  many 
dairymen,  and  in  rather  recent  years  at  least  one  agricultural 
college  published  a  score  card  for  dairy  cows  that  gave  about 
fifty  points  out  of  one  hundred  to  the  escutcheon. 

Modern  tests  have  found  this  theory  to  be  altogether  lack- 
ing in  accuracy.  At  the  present  time  most  score  cards  used  by 


150         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

colleges  allow  only  one  or  two  points  to  the  escutcheon.  Some 
have  omitted  it  from  consideration  altogether,  and  this  seems 
entirely  justifiable,  as  the  escutcheon  theory  may  be  rightly 
regarded  as  a  quack  theory. 

The  quality  of  dairy  cows  is  shown  in  the  hide,  hair,  ear, 
horn,  head,  and  bone,  the  same  as  in  beef  cattle.  The  dairy 
cow  has  a  thinner  skin  than  the  beef  cow,  and  it  should  also 
possess  a  maximum  of  mellowness  and  unctuousness  or  oiliness. 
An  oily  hide  is  something  of  an  evidence  of  milk  rich  in  fat; 
and  an  abundant  yellowish  secretion  about  the  udder,  inside 
the  thighs,  around  the  eyes,  inside  the  ears,  at  the  root  of  the 
tail,  and  below  any  spots  of  light-colored  hair  indicates  a  rich 
butter  color.  Opinions  differ  on  the  question  of  quality  in  dairy 
cattle.  Some  breeders  aim  at  a  very  rugged  type  having  great 
constitution,  rather  large  bone,  and  a  medium  thick  hide.  This 
type  is  exemplified  by  many  Holstein-Friesians  and  by  the  St. 
Lambert  family  of  Jerseys.  Other  breeders  desire  extreme 
quality,  and  this  may  result  in  some  delicacy  of  constitution. 
Perhaps  this  type  is  best  illustrated  by  what  is  known  as  the 
"Island-type"  of  Jersey,  which  is  the  type  developed  in  the 
native  home  of  the  breed  on  the  Island  of  Jersey,  and  also  fos- 
tered by  many  breeders  of  Jersey  cattle  in  the  United  States. 
The  average  dairyman  will  be  wise  to  steer  a  course  midway 
between  the  two  extremes,  insisting  upon  constitution  first  and 
then  upon  as  much  quality  as  may  be  had  without  delicacy. 

The  temperament  is  of  much  importance.  Temperament 
is  a  term  used  to  express  differences  in  the  mental  and  physical 
constitutions  of  individuals.  Temperaments  are  of  two  kinds 
—sanguine  and  lymphatic.  The  sanguine  temperament  is 
characterized  by  a  strong,  frequent  pulse,  firm  flesh,  soft  and 
light  hair,  active  movements,  and  sensitiveness.  The  lym- 
phatic temperament  is  featured  by  a  rather  sluggish  circulation, 
fleshiness,  thicker  skin  and  coarser  hair,  slow  movements,  and 
quietness.  The  sanguine  temperament  is  possessed  in  marked 
degree  by  the  best  dairy  cattle,  while  beef  cattle  have  the  lym- 
phatic temperament.  The  best  evidence  of  true  dairy  tem- 
perament is  a  lean,  angular  appearance  in  all  parts  of  the  animal. 
A  dairy  bull,  a  young  heifer,  or  a  dry  cow  may  show  some  degree 
of  fleshiness  without  being  seriously  faulted  for  it,  but  a  cow  in 
milk  should  be  free  from  beefiness  even  when  well  fed.  This- 
is  a  good  indication  that  she  is  an  economical  milk  producer. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         151 

The  disposition  varies  greatly  in  different  individuals. 
An  irritable,  kicking,  fence- jumping  cow  is  not  expected  to* 
make  much  of  a  record  as  a  milk  and  butter-fat  producer.  She 
uses  too  much  of  her  energy  in  performance  that  has  no  market 
value;  the  making  of  milk  is  a  secondary  matter  with  her.  Such 
cows  consume  little  feed  and  exhibit  a  fastidious  appetite;  in 
short,  they  are  not  useful  cattle,  there  being  too  much  waste 
of  energy  in  nervousness  and  bad  temper.  In  contrast  to  such 
cows  is  the  cow  that  never  moves  faster  than  a  walk  and  is  gentle 
and  pleasant  to  handle.  She  is  a  good  feeder  and  is  easily 
suited  with  her  feed.  She  spends  lots  of  time  chewing  her  cud 
and  is  always  busy  making  milk.  She  is  a  useful,  profitable 
cow,  provided  she  has  the  conformation  which  enables  her  to 
work  successfully.  The  irritable  cow  has  an  uneasy  and  wild 
expression  of  the  eye,  and  carries  her  head  high.  She  is  usually 
switching  her  tail  whether  it  is  fly-time  or  not.  Proper  dispo- 
sition is  indicated  by  a  calm  eye,  and  by  a  carriage  of  the  poll 
of  the  head  no  higher  or  lower  than  the  withers.  If  the  head 
is  carried  high  it  indicates  nervousness,  while  a  head  carried  low 
indicates  quietness  carried  to  the  extreme  of  sluggishness. 

The  size  of  dairy  cows  varies  between  wide  limits.  The 
holders  of  the  world's  records  in  milk  and  butter-fat  production 
are  large  cows,  which  is  a  condition  naturally  to  be  expected, 
but  does  not  signify  that  small  cows  are  necessarily  less  profit- 
able. The  beef  producer  must  keep  up  a  certain  degree  of  size 
in  his  cattle  in  order  that  the  cuts  of  beef  will  have  the  size  and 
weight  desired,  but  with  dairy  cattle  it  is  different.  The  dairy- 
man cares  not  so  much  that  his  cows  are  large  and  hence  large 
yielders,  as  that  the  yield  be  made  economically;  he  studies  the 
production  in  relation  to  the  feed  consumed.  Small  cows  not 
only  yield  less,  but  eat  less,  and  may  be  as  profitable  as  large 
cows.  The  latter  have  an  advantage  in  that  they  can  profitably 
consume  proportionately  more  roughage,  and  fewer  of  them 
need  be  kept  to  produce  a  given  quantity  of  milk,  requiring 
fewer  stalls  and  slightly  less  labor.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
calves  can  be  sold  at  a  profit,  as  would  be  true  of  a  purebred 
herd,  the  smaller  cows  will  realize  more  profit  from  this  source. 
The  question  of  size  is  of  minor  importance  and  may  be  almost 
ignored  so  far  as  the  production  of  market  milk  is  concerned. 

The  Dairy  Bull. 

The  features  of  dairy  type  as  they  apply  to  the  dairy  cow 
having  been  fully  discussed,  and  the  fundamental  points  of 


152 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


dairy  type  having  been  set  forth  in  that  connection,  the  require- 
ments for  the  bull  may  be  presented  more  quickly.  In  form  the 
bull  should  be  rather  long  and  moderately  wide,  with  a  deep 
rib,  rather  short  leg,  and  rather  angular  body.  His  build  should 
impress  one  with  its  strong  constitution,  barrel  capacity,  strength 
of  back,  and  muscularity  without  beefiness.  The  head  should 
be  decidedly  masculine  in  its  proportions  and  expression,  and  have 
a  wide  muzzle,  large  nostrils,  large,  bright  eyes  with  a  coura- 
geous expression,  and  clean-cut  features.  In  all  breeds  except 
the  Ayrshire,  the  masculine  head  will  have  short,  stubby  horns. 
The  neck  should  be  strong  and  the  crest  heavily  developed. 


Fig.  45.     Excellent  Type  in  the  Dairy  Bull. 

Guernsey  bull,  Holden  4th,  a  noted  breeding  and  show  bull.  Masculinity, 
depth  of  body,  quality,  and  freedom  from  beefiness  are  his  outstanding  good 
points.  Owned  by  Wilcox  &  Stubbs,  Des  Moines,  la. 

The  brisket  shows  more  width,  depth,  and  prominence  than 
in  the  cow,  in  keeping  with  a  masculine  development  of  the 
forequarters.  The  shoulders  are  deeper  and  more  heavily 
developed,  but  should  not  be  beefy.  The  withers  show  more 
width  than  in  the  cow,  yet  tend  to  be  fine  and  free  from  flesh. 
The  front  legs  should  be  straight,  rather  short,  and  have  fair 
width  between.  The  chest  should  be  moderately  wide  and 
very  deep.  The  back  should  be  moderately  wide  and  fairly 
long,  but  carried  up  straight  and  strong.  The  top  line  of  the 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


153 


dairy  bull  usually  rises  higher  over  the  withers  and  neck  than 
over  the  back  and  loin,  and  the  first  impression  may  be  that 
the  animal  is  sway-backed,  but  upon  further  study  the  observer 
often  finds  he  has  been  misled  by  the  rise  over  the  withers  and 
crest.  No  marked  covering  of  flesh  should  be  found  on  the 
back,  but  the  backbone  should  be  plainly  evident. 

The  loin  should  be  long,  level,  and  medium  wide.  The 
barrel  should  be  deep  and  well  developed,  but  need  not  show 
as  much  capacity  as  demanded  in  the  cow.  The  hips  are  only 
moderately  wide,  the  points  being  much  less  prominent  than 


Fig.  46.     A  Dairy  Bull  with  Strength  and  Vigor. 

Holstein-Friesian  bull,  King  Homestead  DeKol,  Champion  at  many 
state  fairs  and  at  the  Waterloo  and  National  Dairy  Shows  in  1911.  His 
masculinity,  ruggedness,  and  length  and  depth  of  body  are  marked.  Owned 
by  Mr.  John  B.  Irwin,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

in  the  female.  The  rump  should  be  long,  level,  and  medium 
wide.  The  thighs  may  be  slightly  heavier  than  in  the  female, 
but  any  considerable  degree  of  thickness  is  sharply  criticized. 
Some  dairy  bulls  almost  rival  beef  bulls  in  the  amount  of  fleshing 
shown  in  the  hindquarters,  and  such  animals  are  distinctly  not 
of  true  dairy  type  in  conformation  and  temperament.  A  dairy 
bull  should  carry  no  more  fleshing  than  is  permissible  in  a  dry 
cow  or  in  a  heifer  before  her  first  calving.  The  bull  should  be 
well  divided  between  the  hind  legs,  and  should  have  rather  flat, 


154         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

trim  thighs.  The  hind  legs  should  be  placed  rather  well  apart, 
and  should  be  straight  and  medium  short. 

In  common  with  the  males  of  nearly  all  species  of  animals 
classed  as  mammals,  the  dairy  bull  has  miniature  teats  called 
rudimentaries.  These  are  located  in  front  and  on  each  side  of 
the  scrotum,  there  being  two  on  a  side.  They  vary  in  length 
from  mere  buttons  to  an  inch  or  more.  Some  persons  attach 
much  significance  to  the  rudimentaries,  believing  that  their 
position  and  size  indicate  the  shape  and  capacity  of  udder  which 
will  be  shown  by  the  bull's  daughters.  It  is  not  established 
that  the  rudimentaries  really  have  such  a  significance,  and 
many  persons  give  them  no  attention  in  judging.  Dairy  bulls 
also  have  small  veins  on  the  belly  corresponding  to  the  large 
milk-veins  of  the  dairy  cow. 

The  quality  of  the  bull  is  very  important;  it  should  be  easily 
apparent  in  a  loose,  mellow  hide,  and  a  reasonable  degree  of 
quality  is  also  wanted  in  head  and  bone.  Coarseness  is  an 
evidence  of  lack  of  good  breeding.  In  disposition,  dairy  bulls 
are  much  less  quiet  and  trustworthy  than  beef  bulls,  often  being 
ill-natured  and  sometimes  unruly.  This  does  not  subject  them 
to  criticism  unless  they  become  dangerous  and  difficult  to  handle, 
but  is  accepted  as  an  evidence  of  masculinity. 

The  individuality  of  the  dairy  bull  is  certainly  somewhat 
significant  of  his  value,  but  it  reveals  less  of  the  animal's  ability 
to  perform  his  function  than  does  the  cow's  individuality  when 
it  is  studied  in  relation  to  function.  The  bull  is  only  valuable  as 
a  progenitor  of  heifer  calves  that  will  develop  into  heavy  milkers. 
What  points,  therefore,  in  the  individuality  of  the  bull  are  evi- 
dence that  he  will  sire  high-producing  cows?  It  may  as  well 
be  stated  first  as  last  that  it  is  impossible  to  determine  in  any 
accurate  manner  from  the  bull's  individuality  what  his  breeding 
qualities,  as  they  relate  to  milk  flow,  will  be.  There  are  far  more 
reliable  sources  from  which  to  form  such  an  estimate  and  these 
will  be  discussed  later.  Nevertheless,  it  is  important  that  the 
dairy  bull  show  a  rugged  constitution,  great  digestive  capacity, 
strength  of  conformation,  and  absence  of  beefiness,  these  being 
essential  points  desired  in  his  female  offspring.  If  he  is  faulty 
in  any^  of  these  respects,  we  may  reasonably  suppose  that  his 
daughters  will  be  similarly  deficient.  He  should  be  masculine 
in  order  to  insure  potency.  Having  all  these  points  of  indi- 
viduality, it  is  still  a  question  as  to  what  sort  of  performance 
may  be  expected  from  his  daughters. 


CHAPTER  XL 
THE  SECRETION  OF  MILK. 

Milk  is  secreted  by  the  mammary  glands  or  udder  of  the 
female  after  the  birth  of  young,  the  secretion  continuing  until 
the  young  are  mature  enough  to  live  on  ordinary  food.  All 
animals  which  have  mammary  glands  are  classed  as  mam- 
mals, and  this  group  of  animals  presents  wide  variations  in 
the  number,  position,  capacity,  shape,  and  prominence  of  the 
glands.  The  mammary  glands  are  present  in  the  male  in  rudi- 
mentary condition,  although,  in  abnormal  cases,  milk  is  secreted 
by  males.  Milk  is  easily  digested  and  very  nutritious,  and  no 
food  for  the  young  animal  is  equal  to  its  mother's  milk.  The 
highest  development  of  the  udder  is  found  in  the  dairy  cow, 
the  extreme  development  having  been  largely  secured  by  careful 
breeding;  the  lactation  period  has  become  prolonged,  and  the 
daily  yield  and  quality  of  milk  have  been  much  improved.  Cows 
have  been  known  to  secrete  over  one  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  of  milk  in  a  day,  their  own  weight  in  less  than  two  weeks, 
and  over  fifteen  tons  in  a  year. 

Exterior  of  the  cow's  udder. — The  cow's  udder  consists 
of  four  mammary  glands,  usually  referred  to  as  the  "quarters," 
and  sometimes  there  are  one  to  four  rudimentaries,  all  arranged 
in  pairs  on  opposite  sides  of  the  median  line  of  the  body.  The 
udder  begins  a  few  inches  behind  the  umbilicus  and  continues 
backward  and  upward  between  the  legs.  The  right  and  left 
sides  are  divided  on  the  exterior  by  a  well-defined  line  or  groove, 
but  the  line  of  separation  between  the  front  and  rear  quarters 
is  not  so  pronounced.  The  appearance  of  size  depends  partly 
upon  the  strength  and  shape  of  the  abdominal  wall;  if  the  wall 
is  loose,  the  udder  is  forced  downward  and  backward  and  there 
is  a  seeming  increase  in  size.  This  sometimes  accounts  for  the 
apparently  sudden  development  of  a  good  udder  after  the 
second  or  third  calving.  The  skin  covering  the  udder  is  very 
thin  and  elastic,  and  the  hair  is  finer,  softer,  and  shorter  than  on 
the  rest  of  the  body.  The  skin  covering  the  teats  bears  little 
or  no  hair,  and  is  often  of  a  darker  color  than  upon  other  parts. 

Structure  of  the  cow's  udder. — When  dissected,  the  right 
and  left  halves  of  the  udder  are  found  to  be  enveloped  in  strong, 

155 


156 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


fibrous  capsules.  The  fibers  of  the  two  capsules  intermingle 
somewhat,  and  are  prolonged  upward  to  the  median  line  of  the 
body  to  form  a  ligamentous  support  and  partition,  the  two  halves 
thus  being  made  distinct.  The  quarters  on  each  side  are  not 
so  distinctly  separated,  there  being  no  such  well-developed  par- 
tition as  between  the  halves,  nor  can  the  line  of  separation  be 
seen  unless  the  tissues  are  stained.  Dr.  A.  W.  Bitting  of  the 
Indiana  Experiment  Station  injected  different  colored  liquids 
through  the  teats  and  found  that  the  liquids  did  not  leave  the 

MBHHHMtiHHHaBHHBBBMIHHHBHiH  iniaiiiiiiiiiiiii • 


Fig.  47.     Cross-section  of  Cow's  Udder. 

a,  Body  of  gland;  b,  milk  cistern;  c,  cavity  of  teat;  d,  duct  of  teat;  e,  inter- 
mammary  groove;  f,  septum  between  glands;  g,  supramammary  fat. 

quarter,  his  investigation  showing  that  a  rather  distinct  trans- 
verse partition  exists.  It  follows  that  milk  drawn  from  any 
teat  must  be  produced  in  its  quarter,  although  there  is  slight 
communication  between  the  smaller  ducts  in  the  upper  parts  of 
the  two  quarters  on  a  side.  Between  the  quarters  of  the  same 
half,  the  capsule  sends  off  a  rather  incomplete  transverse  parti- 
tion common  to  both,  and  there  are  numerous  other  reflections 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         157 

of  the  capsule  inward  from  all  sides  to  serve  as  a  supporting 
framework  for  the  gland  tissue  and  to  form  the  milk  cisterns 
and  ducts. 

Structure  of  the  teat.— The  tissues  of  the  capsule  are  pro- 
longed downward,  becoming  greatly  thickened,  to  form  the 
walls  of  the  teats.  The  teat  is  cylindrical  or  conical  in  shape, 
variable  in  length  and  diameter,  and  placed  at  the  lowest  por- 
tion of  the  gland.  Its  shape  and  size  are  independent  of  the 
size  of  the  gland.  It  is  very  elastic  and  is  covered  with  a  tough, 
close-fitting,  thin  skin.  Through  its  center  runs  a  duct  called 
the  teat-canal,  having  a  capacity,  when  distended,  of  from  one 
to  one  and  one-half  ounces  in  moderate-sized  teats.  There  are 
both  circular  and  longitudinal  muscle  fibers,  and  at  the  lower 
end  the  circular  fibers  form  an  involuntary  sphincter  muscle, 
the  function  of  which  is  to  keep  the  teat-canal  closed  under 
ordinary  pressure.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  teat  is  another 
involuntary  sphincter  muscle,  but  it  does  not  completely  close 
the  canal,  and  sometimes  a  third  is  found  farther  above.  The 
sphincters  are  sometimes  so  relaxed  that  very  slight  pressure 
is  sufficient  to  open  them,  and  the  cow  leaks  her  milk;  of  other 
cows  the  reverse  is  true,  making  them  hard  milkers. 

The  milk-cistern,  ducts,  and  alveoli. — Above  the  teat  is 
a  reservoir,  called  the  milk-cistern,  seldom  holding  more  than 
half  a  pint.  This  cistern  is  divided  into  pockets  of  various 
sizes  into  which  the  large  milk-ducts  empty.  At  the  point  of 
entrance  of  these  ducts  are  sphincter  muscles,  and  while  they 
cannot  entirely  close  the  openings,  they  may  very  nearly  do  so, 
and  in  this  way  the  cow  is  enabled  to  "hold  up  her  milk/'  These 
large  ducts  ramify  to  all  parts  of  the  gland  and  anastomose 
(intercommunicate)  freely;  and  at  the  intersections  are  still 
other  voluntary  sphincter  muscles.  A  strong  effort  on  the  part 
of  the  cow  is  required  to  close  the  larger  ducts  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  udder,  but  a  slight  effort  will  close  the  smaller  canals 
further  up  in  the  glands.  Cows  differ  greatly  in  their  control 
over  these  muscles  and  in  their  disposition  to  exert  it.  The 
most  common  causes  of  holding  up  milk  are  fright,  the  presence 
of  strangers  in  the  stable,  lack  of  familiarity  with  surroundings, 
irregularity  in  the  time  or  manner  of  feeding  or  milking,  and 
sexual  heat.  With  some  cows  it  becomes  a  habit,  much  injuring 
the  usefulness  and  milking  capacity  of  the  animal.  The  large 
ducts  subdivide  into  smaller  ducts,  and  these  again  into  smaller 
ones,  until  they  terminate  in  groups  of  small  sac-like  bodies 


158 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


known  as  the  ultimate  follicles,  acini,  or  alveoli.     The  teat-canal, 
milk-cistern,  and  ducts  are  lined  with  columnar  epithelium. 

The  alveolus  (plural,  alveoli)  is  the  sacculated  distention 
found  in  groups  of  three  to  five  on  the  end  of  the  minute  milk- 
ducts.  It  is  the  essential  part  of  the  gland.  It  is  lined  by  a 
single  layer  of  epithelial  cells  which  are  especially  concerned 
in  milk  production.  The  alveolus  is  only  1-30  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  its  cavity  is  from  1-250  to  1-100  of  an  inch  in 
length  and  from  1-1300  to  1-800  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  New 
ducts  and  alveoli  may  be  formed  up  to  about  the  fifth  or  sixth 
year,  thereby  increasing  the  producing  capacity  of  the  cow. 


Fig.  48.     Where  Milk  is  Made. 

Group  of  alveoli,     a,  Duct;  b,  capillary  network;  c,  alveoli;  d,  epithelial 
cells;  e,  fibrous  tissue.     (After  Hough  &  Sedgwick.) 

The  entire  gland  may  be  compared  to  a  large  bunch  of 
grapes;  the  main  duct  of  the  gland  branches  very  much  as  the 
stem  of  the  bunch  of  grapes  branches;  and  just  as  the  branches 
and  sub-branches  of  the  stem  lead  to  the  grapes,  so  the  branches 
of  the  duct  lead  to  the  alveoli  of  the  gland.  If  we  pack  the 
bunch  of  grapes  in  a  small  basket  of  sawdust,  so  that  the  saw- 
dust fills  up  loosely  the  spaces  between  the  individual  grapes 
and  the  branches  of  the  stem,  we  may  develop  our  comparison 
further;  the  sawdust  stands  for  the  connective  tissue  in  which 
the  ducts  and  alveoli  are  embedded,  and  the  basket  stands  for 
the  capsule. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


159 


The  arterial  circulation. — The  mammary  glands  are  abun- 
dantly supplied  with  blood.  The  blood  leaves  the  heart  through 
the  posterior  aorta,  common  iliacs,  and  external  iliac,  which 
carry  backward  to  the  region  of  the  hips.  The  external  iliac 
there  divides  into  two  arteries,  one  of  which,  the  prepubic,  divides 
into  the  two  pudic  arteries,  the  external  one  of  which  passes 
down  the  thigh  and  gives  off  a  branch,  known  as  the  mammary 
artery,  which  enters  the  top  of  the  udder  from  the  rear.  The 
mammary  artery  has  four  large  branches,  one  for  each  quarter 
of  the  udder,  and  there  is  also  a  small  branch  for  each  rudi- 
mentary gland.  The  large  branches  subdivide  within  the 
gland  tissue. 


Fig.  49.     Circulation  To  and  From  the  Udder. 

The  broken  lines  represent  the  arteries  which  carry  blood  containing  the 
nutritive  material  to  the  udder  where  it  is  manufactured  into  milk.  The 
heavy  black  lines  represent  the  veins  which  carry  the  blood  back  to  the  heart. 
Note  that  there  is  but  one  route  from  the  heart  to  the  udder,  whereas  there 
are  two  routes  from  the  udder  to  the  heart.  M.  V.,  milk-vein;  M.  W.,  milk- 
well.  (After  Bitting  of  the  Indiana  Station.) 

The  venous  circulation  is  more  complex  than  the  arterial. 
The  blood  is  collected  from  the  capillaries  by  from  14  to  17 
large  veins  which  empty  into  the  mammary  vein  running  parallel 
with  the  mammary  artery  at  the  top  of  the  udder.  The  mam- 
mary vein  is  divided  into  two  parts  which  encircle  the  top  of 
the  udder  and  connect  in  front  and  behind  like  a  rope  tied  around 
it.  From  this  circuit  of  veins  the  blood  returns  to  the  heart  by 
two  routes.  One  route  leads  out  to  the  rear  of  the  udder,  then 


160         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

up  to  the  region  of  the  hips,  and  thence  to  the  vena  cava  and  the 
heart,  the  veins  along  the  route  being  parallel  to  the  arteries 
through  which  the  blood  came,  and  being  similarly  named.  The 
other  route  is  already  familiar,  leading  out  in  front  of  the  udder 
through  the  large  subcutaneous  abdominal  veins  (milk-veins) 
which  pass  through  the  chest  wall  and  become  a  part  of  the  in- 
ternal thoracic  vein,  reaching  the  heart  by  way  of  the  anterior 
vena  cava.  The  direction  of  the  blood  in  the  encircling  veins  at 
the  top  of  the  udder  is  determined  by  the  valves  in  the  vessels. 
The  larger  volume  of  blood  passes  through  the  milk-veins,  thus 
bringing  them  into  great  prominence.  During  pregnancy,  the 
pressure  of  the  uterus  tends  to  interfere  with  the  circulation 
through  the  posterior  vessels,  and  this  tends  to  further  increase 
the  size  of  the  milk- veins.  Inasmuch  as  the  blood  may  return  to 
the  heart  posteriorly,  it  is  possible  to  have  a  large  milker  with 
small  milk- veins,  but  this  is  not  likely  to  occur.  Cows  with 
large  milk-veins  are  large  producers,  and  cows  with  small  milk- 
veins  may  be  large  producers. 

Nature  and  composition  of  milk. — Cow's  milk  is  an  opaque, 
yellowish-white  fluid  devoid  of  odor  except  for  a  short  time 
after  its  extraction.  When  fresh,  it  is  slightly  sweet  and  has  a 
slightly  alkaline  reaction.  Under  the  microscope,  milk  is  found 
to  be  a  fine  emulsion  of  fat,  a  quart  of  milk  being  estimated  to 
contain  2,000,000,000,000  fat  globules,  and  the  cow  that  gives 
two  gallons  of  milk  per  day  must  therefore  secrete  at  the  rate  of 
over  175,000,000  fat  globules  per  second.  The  composition  of 
milk  varies  a  great  deal;  there  are  differences  between  breeds, 
differences  between  individuals,  and  differences  in  the  milk 
from  the  same  cow  at  different  times.  As  lactation  advances, 
the  daily  milk  yield  decreases,  but  the  percentage  of  fat  con- 
stantly increases  as  does  the  percentage  of  all  solids.  The 
specific  gravity  of  average  milk  is  1.032  and  its  composition  is 
as  follows: 

f  Water    87% 

f  Ash  .7% 

Milk   I                         f  Solids  not           Casein  2.7% 

Fat  9.1%    I  Albumin  .7% 

[Solids    13  %\                           I  Sugar  5.0% 

(  Fat     3.9% 

The  results  of  various  American  experiments  indicate  that 
the  average  composition  of  the  milk  of  the  various  breeds  is  as 
follows : 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         161 

Breeds  Solids  Fat 

per  ct.  per  ct. 

Jersey 14.70  5.35 

Guernsey 14.71  5.16 

Shorthorn 13.38  4.05 

Ayrshire 12.61  3.66 

Holstein-Friesian 11.85  3.42 

The  quantity  of  milk  given  by  the  different  breeds  is  almost 
inversely  proportional  to  the  fat  content,  so  that  the  total  quan- 
tity of  solids  and  fat  is  nearly  the  same  for  all  dairy  breeds.  The 
highest  average  percentage  of  fat  in  a  regular  milking  that  has 
been  reported  is  10.7,  and  the  cow  did  not  give  milk  of  this  rich- 
ness regularly.  In  a  few  cases,  tests  showing  9  per  cent,  have 
been  made  and  it  is  only  rarely  that  a  cow  averages  7  per  cent. 

Secretion  of  milk. — The  udder  is  a  true  organ  of  secretion. 
Milk  is  not  merely  strained  from  the  blood,  but  contains  sub- 
stances not  found  in  the  blood,  these  being  formed  in  the  gland 
itself.  Surrounding  the  alveoli  are  capillaries,  and  through 
the  walls  of  the  capillaries  the  fluids  of  the  blood  pass  freely 
into  the  cavity  of  the  alveoli  by  osmosis.  At  the  same  time, 
the  epithelial  cells  lining  the  alveoli  are  the  seat  of  secretory 
activities  which  produce  some  of  the  most  important  constituents 
of  the  milk.  Thus  milk  is  formed  partly  from  the  osmosis  of 
blood  serum  and  white  blood  corpuscles  directly  into  the  cavity 
of  the  alveolus,  and  partly  by  a  chemical  elaboration  by  the 
epithelial  cells.  The  water  from  the  blood  serum  passes  out  of 
the  alveolus,  carrying  with  it  some  of  the  mineral  constituents 
of  the  blood  in  solution,  and  a  part  of  the  albumin  of  the  blood 
serum.  During  its  passage  from  the  capillaries  to  the  cavity 
of  the  alveolus,  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  albumin  of  the  blood 
is  changed  by  the  epithelial  cells  to  the  casein  of  milk.  These 
cells  also  secrete  globules  of  fat,  having  an  average  diameter  of 
about  0.0001  of  an  inch.  Small  amounts  of  fat  may  also  be 
carried  over  directly  by  the  blood  and  appear  in  the  milk  without 
change.  Only  minute  quantities  of  sugar  are  found  in  the  blood, 
hence  milk-sugar  is  no  doubt  also  elaborated  by  the  secretory 
cells  of  the  udder. 

Milk  secretion  is  not  perfectly  understood  in  all  its  details. 
In  some  of  its  phases,  milk  secretion  is  undoubtedly  a  continuous 
process,  but  the  agitation  of  the  udder  at  milking  time  seems 
to  be  very  essential  in  completing  the  process  of  milk  manufac- 
ture. Between  milkings,  the  udder  is  engaged  in  certain  im- 
portant preliminary  steps  which  make  possible  the  rapid 


162         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

culmination  of  the  act  of  secretion  when  the  stimulus  afforded 
by  agitation  is  given.  (The  theory  that  milk  secretion  is  largely 
the  result  of  cell  growth,  division,  and  degeneration,  is  no  longer 
held  by  leading  physiologists.) 

If  an  udder  is  cut  open  just  before  milking  time,  it  is  found 
that  the  milk-cisterns  and  ducts  are  distended  with  milk  con- 
taining a  very  low  per  cent,  of  butter-fat.  The  quantity  of  this 
milk  is  only  a  small  part  of  the  total  yield  which  the  cow  would 
give  at  a  milking.  Agitation  of  the  udder  is  necessary  to  com- 
plete the  process  of  secretion.  Observation  of  a  calf,  lamb,  or 
kitten  when  nursing  shows  that  considerable  agitation  is  a  promi- 
nent feature  of  nature's  method  of  milking.  Under  this  stimulus 
the  water  of  the  blood  rushes  through  the  walls  of  the  alveoli 
and  carries  the  butter-fat,  which  has  been  manufactured  by  the 
epithelial  cells,  down  into  the  milk-ducts  and  cisterns,  and  finally 
through  the  teats.  Other  products  of  secretion,  namely  casein 
and  lactose  (milk-sugar),  are  brought  down  also.  The  last  milk 
drawn  from  the  udder  is  the  richest  in  fat;  in  one  experiment, 
four  successive  samples  taken  during  the  course  of  milking 
tested  0.76,  2.60,  5.35,  and  9.80  per  cent,  of  fat  respectively. 

Experiments  made  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station 
in  manipulating  the  udders  of  cows,  after  the  regular  milkiirgs, 
resulted  in  bringing  down  considerable  milk  very  rich  in  butter- 
fat.  It  was  estimated  that  if  the  udders  of  the  million  cows  in 
Wisconsin  at  that  time  were  manipulated  after  the  customary 
operation  of  milking,  and  if  butter-fat  is  worth  only  twenty 
cents  per  pound,  the  value  of  the  extra  product  would  amount 
to  $6.00  per  head  annually,  or  $6,000,000  for  all  the  cows  in 
the  state. 

Colostrum. — Because  of  more  or  less  incompleteness  of  the 
various  processes  of  secretion  at  the  start  of  the  lactation  period, 
the  first  milk  differs  in  composition  from  that  afterwards  se- 
creted, and  is  called  colostrum.  It  is  thick  and  viscous,  con- 
tains less  water  than  normal  milk,  five  times  as  much  albumin, 
twice  as  much  ash,  slightly  more  fat,  and  about  one-half  the 
usual  percentage  of  sugar.  It  has  a  laxative  effect  on  the  calf, 
useful  in  properly  starting  the  work  of  digestion.  In  about  one 
week  following  birth,  the  yield  of  milk  usually  increases  and 
becomes  normal  in  composition. 

Stimuli  to  secretion. — The  cow  has  no  control  over  the 
secretion  of  milk,  it  being  involuntary.  During  the  latter  part 
of  pregnancy,  the  embryo  calf  makes  very  rapid  growth,  and 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        163 

the  blood  supply  to  the  placenta  is  much  increased.  At  that 
time  the  cow  does  not  ordinarily  secrete  milk,  her  excess  of  energy 
being  given  to  the  growth  of  the  embryo.  When  the  calf  is 
born,  the  demand  through  the  placenta  ceases,  and  the  large 
volume  of  blood  is  turned  toward  the  udder.  A  short  time 
previous  to  calving,  the  udder  of  the  cow  shows  considerable 
increase  in  size,  and  by  the  time  the  calf  is  born  the  mammary 
glands  are  fulfilling  their  function  nearly  to  the  maximum  capac- 
ity. In  young  heifers  that  have  never  had  a  calf,  the  udder  con- 
tains a  watery,  saline  fluid.  Regular  attempts  at  milking,  or 
manipulation  of  the  udder  with  the  hands,  or  allowing  a  calf 
to  suck,  may  stimulate  the  secretion  of  considerable  normal 
milk  in  such  young  heifers.  The  same  methods  have  been  known 
to  cause  the  secretion  of  a  milk-like  fluid  by  the  rudimentary 
glands  of  males.  Thorough  milking  furnishes  a  stimulus  that 
causes  prolongation  of  the  lactation  period,  while  incomplete 
removal  of  milk  tends  to  check  the  secretion  and  shorten  the 
milking  period,  and  it  may  also  cause  serious  inflammation. 
Frequent  milkings  tend  to  increase  the  flow  of  milk,  but  there 
is  no  special  advantage  in  milking  more  often  than  twice  a  day 
unless  the  cow  is  a  high  producer  and  the  udder  becomes  very 
much  distended  between  milkings,  as  such  distention  acts  as  a 
check  to  further  secretion.  Regularity  in  milking  is  essential 
to  best  results,  both  in  the  amount  secreted  per  day  and  in  the 
length  of  the  lactation  period. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
VARIATIONS   IN   THE    USEFULNESS    OF   DAIRY   COWS. 

The  census  of  1910  showed  that  the  average  cow  kept  for 
milk  production  averaged  3,113.2  pounds  of  milk  per  year.  If 
this  milk  tested  four  per  cent,  fat,  each  cow  produced  124.5 
pounds  of  butter-fat.  Assuming  that  average  butter  contains 
85  per  cent,  of  butter-fat,  the  average  American  dairy  cow  is 
found  to  have  had  146.5  pounds  of  butter  to  her  credit.  Rather 
it  was  a  discredit.  It  is  generally  agreed  by  dairymen  that  an 
annual  production  of  at  least  200  pounds  of  butter  is  necessary 
to  pay  for  feed,  labor,  taxes,  insurance,  and  interest  on  the 
investment  in  keeping  one  cow.  The  average  dairy  cow  in  the 
United  States  in  1919  was  estimated  to  be  worth  $78.24.  The 
cow  that  yields  200  pounds  of  butter  in  a  year  is  not  worth  more 
than  that,  if  as  much.  If  the  250-pound  cow  gives  50  pounds 
for  profit,  or  $20,  she  will  pay  10  per  cent,  interest  on  $200.  If 
the  200-pound  cow  is  worth  $75,  the  250-pound  cow  is  worth 
$275,  the  400-pound  cow  is  worth  $875,  and  the  few  exceptional 
cows  that  produce  enough  butter-fat  in  a  year  to  make  1000 
pounds  of  butter  are  each  worth  $3,275.  These  figures  might 
be  further  increased  by  including  the  values  of  the  calves  pro- 
duced by  each  class  of  cows.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however, 
cows  yielding  200  pounds  of  butter  or  less  are  not  worth  any- 
thing as  dairy  cows,  but  only  what  they  will  bring  for  beef, 
and  the  250-pound  cow  will  not  bring  $275,  yet  she  may  pay 
a  reasonable  per  cent,  of  interest  on  that  sum.  These  figures 
are  valuable  only  as  indications  of  the  wide  variations  in  the 
usefulness  of  dairy  cows.  It  is  estimated  that  one-fourth  of 
the  cows  in  the  entire  country  kept  for  milk  do  not  pay  for  the 
cost  of  keeping,  and  nearly  one-fourth  more  fail  to  yield  an 
annual  profit. 

The  following  tables  are  compiled  from  the  results  of  the 
classic  tests  of  purebred  dairy  cows  at  the  Pan-American  and 
Louisiana-Purchase  expositions.  These  tables  are  presented  to 
show  variations  in  the  profitableness  of  different  individuals 
rather  than  of  different  breeds: 

164 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Pan-American  Exposition,   Buffalo,    1901;   six-months  test. 


165 


Breed  and 
individual 

Av. 
daily 
yield 
of 
milk 

Per 
cent, 
of 
fat 

Daily 
return 
over 
feed 
cost 

Breed  and 
individual 

Av. 
daily 
yield 
of 
milk 

Per 
cent, 
of 
fat 

Daily 
return 
over 
feed 
cost 

Guernsey  — 
Best  cow  
Poorest  cow  .  .  . 
Red  Polled— 
Best  cow  
Poorest  cow  
Jersey  — 
Best  cow 

Lbs. 

31.2 
23.5 

34.2 
30.1 

25  8 

5.4 

4.4 

4.5 
3.7 

5  6 

Cents 

33.0 
16.3 

28.9 
17.6 

27  9 

Shorthorn  — 
Best  cow  
Poorest  cow  
Polled  Jersey  — 
Best  cow  
Poorest  cow  
Brown  Swiss  — 
Best  cow 

Lbs. 

38.3 
33.6 

22.3 
13.7 

32  2 

3.7 
3.4 

5.6 
4.3 

4  1 

Cents 

23.9 
16.0 

23.8 
8.6 

22  9 

Poorest  cow  
Holstein  — 
Best  cow 

30.3 
45  2 

4.0 
3  4 

21.4 
27  4 

Poorest  cow...  . 
Fr.  Canadian  — 
Best  cow 

34.6 
30  0 

3.3 
4  0 

16.9 
22  6 

Poorest  cow  .... 
Ayrshire  — 
Best  cow  

41.1 
39.1 

3.3 
3.6 

20.3 
26.2 

Poorest  cow..  .  . 
Dutch  Belted- 
Best  cow  

21.4 
29.5 

3.7 
4.2 

12.7 
21.1 

Poorest  cow.  .  .  . 

36.8 

3.4 

21.5 

Poorest  cow  

21.8 

3.1 

6.4 

Louisiana-Purchase  Exposition,  St.  Louis,   1004;  120-day  test. 


Breed    and 

Ave 

yie 

rage  d 
d  per  ( 

aily 

3OW 

Per 

Feed 
cost 

Feed 
cost 

Gain 

Daily 
return 

individual 

Milk 

Fat 

Total 
solids 

cent, 
fat 

100  Ibs 
milk 

1  Ib. 
fat 

in  live 
wt. 

over 
feed 
cost 

Jersey  — 
Best  cow  

Lbs. 
48.4 

Lbs. 
2.3 

Lbs. 
6.7 

4.8 

Cents 
55  0 

Cents 
9  7 

Lbs. 

77 

Cents 
42  1 

Poorest  cow  
Holstein-Friesian- 
Best  cow  
Poorest  cow  .... 
Brown  Swiss  — 
Best  cow  

38.8 

67.5 
47.1 

51.0 

1.6 

2.4 
1.5 

1  8 

5.1 

7.5 
5.1 

6  1 

4.1 

3.5 
3.2 

3  4 

65.0 

45.0 
61.0 

54  5 

13.2 

11.0 
16.5 

13  7 

85 

54 
147 

74 

22.3 

38.4 
15.0 

23  1 

Poorest  cow  
Shorthorn  — 
Best  cow 

38.5 
43  4 

1.5 
1  7 

5.1 
5  5 

3.8 
4  0 

69.5 
54  5 

15.5 
11  7 

147 
139 

16.5 
27  1 

Poorest  cow  .  .  . 

21.4 

0.8 

2.7 

3.9 

107.5 

23.5 

23.4 

1.6 

The  tests  at  the  two  expositions  cannot  be  compared,  except 
in  the  most  general  sort  of  way,  because  different  prices  were 
charged  for  feed  and  credited  for  milk  and  butter-fat  produced. 
All  of  the  tests  plainly  show  that  greater  variations  in  economy 
of  production  exist  within  the  various  breeds  than  between  the 
breeds.  This  is  a  point  often  forgotten  by  those  who  argue 
upon  the  comparative  merits  of  breeds.  At  the  Pan-American 
Exposition,  the  best  Guernsey  cow  returned  five  times  as  much 
profit  as  the  poorest  Dutch  Belted  cow.  At  the  Louisiana- 


166         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Purchase  Exposition,  the  best  Jersey  returned  twenty-six  times 
the  profit  returned  by  the  poorest  Shorthorn.  In  both  tests 
it  will  be  observed  that  in  the  majority  of  instances  the  best 
cow  of  a  breed  returned  twice  as  much  profit  as  the  poorest  cow 
of  the  same  breed. 

At  the  Louisiana-Purchase  Exposition,  a  Holstein  cow  was 
the  leader  in  total  production  of  milk  and  butter-fat,  and  a  Jersey 
led  in  economy  of  production.  The  following  facts  from  the 
complete,  detailed  reports  are  of  much  value  in  showing  the 
possibilities  for  profit  from  well-bred  dairy  cows  of  real  dairy 
type.  Although  varying  considerably  in  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  milk  produced,  it  will  be  observed  that  they  were 
nearly  equal  from  the  standpoint  of  net  profits: 

Name Shadybrook  Gerben  Loretta  D. 

Breed Holstein  Jersey 

Duration  of  test,  days 120.  120. 

Days  in  milk  at  beginning  of  test 12.  71 . 

Total  pounds  milk 8101.7  5802.7 

Total  pounds  butter-fat 282. 6  280.2 

Total  pounds  butter 330.4  330.0 

Average  per  cent,  fat 3.48  4 . 82 

Average  per  cent,  total  solids 11 . 13  13 . 83 

Average  pounds  milk  per  day 67 . 5  48.4 

Pounds  milk  to  make  1  Ib.  butter 24 . 52  17 . 58 

Average  value  milk  per  day,  cents 86 . 15  83 . 11 

Average  value  butter  per  day,  cents 68 . 82  68 . 75 

Average  grain  ration,  pounds 22 . 1  17. 5 

Average  hay  and  silage,  pounds 64.2  36. 9 

Cost  of  ration  per  day,  cents 30. 47  26 . 65 

Cost  of  feed  in  100  Ibs.  milk,  cents 45.  55. 

Cost  of  feed  in  1  Ib.  butter,  cents 11 .07  9. 69 

Average  net  profit  milk  per  days,  cents 55 . 68  56 . 45 

Average  net  profit  butter  per  day,  cents 38 . 34  42 . 09 

Pounds  gain  in  weight  during  test . .  54.  77. 

The  highest  records  in  milk  and  butter-fat  production  are 
useful  in  showing  the  possibilities  in  the  breeding,  feeding,  and 
management  of  dairy  cattle.  Sometimes  these  records  are  made 
regardless  of  economy  in  production,  no  expense  being  spared 
to  give  the  cow  every  opportunity  to  make  a  high  record;  some- 
times they  have  been  secured  at  the  expense  of  the  cow's  future 
usefulness,  her  constitution  being  undermined  and  her  digestion 
permanently  deranged  by  the  forcing  methods  that  are  prac- 
ticed. Hence  the  value  of  such  records  is  sometimes  over- 
estimated. 

Following  are  the  leading  records  of  the  various  dairy 
breeds,  the  world's  records  over  all  breeds  being  indicated  by 
an  asterisk  (*). 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        167 

Holsteins. 

*One  day,  1917,  May  Echo  Sylvia     (Ontario,  Can.) 152. 10  Ibs.  milk 

*One  day,  1919,  Rolo  Mercena  DeKol     (Ontario,  Can.).  . .         6.86  Ibs.  fat 

*7  days,      1917,  May  Echo  Sylvia      (Ontario,  Can.) 1,005. 10  Ibs.  milk 

*7  days,      1919,  Rolo  Mercena  DeKol    (Ontario,  Can.). . .       41.54  Ibs.  fat 

*30  days,    1917,  May  Echo  Sylvia    (Ontario,  Can.) 4,196.90  Ibs.  milk 

*30  days,    1919,  Rolo  Mercena  DeKol     (Ontario,  Can.) ...      160.27  Ibs.  fat 

*One  year,  1919,  Tilly  Alcartra    (California) 33,428 .80  Ibs.  milk 

*One  year,  1915,  Duchess  Skylark  Ormsby     (Minnesota) .  .  1,205.09  Ibs.  fat 

Guernseys. 

One  year,    1915,  Murne  Cowan     (Ohio) 24,008. 00  Ibs.  milk 

One  year,    1915,  Murne  Cowan   .(Ohio) 1,098. 18  Ibs.  fat 

Jerseys. 

One  year,    1915,  Passport    (Pennsylvania) 19,694. 80  Ibs.  milk 

One  year,    1919,  Vive  La  France     (Oregon) 1,031. 64  Ibs.  fat 

Ayr  shires. 

One  year,    1915,  Garclaugh,  May  Mischief  (Pennsylvania)  25,329  . 00  Ibs.  milk 
One  year,    1915,  Lily  of  Willowmoor    (Washington) 955. 56  Ibs.  fat 

Brown  Swiss. 

One  year,    1913,  College  Bravura  2d.     (Michigan) 19,460. 60  Ibs.  milk 

One  year,    1913,  College  Bravura  2d.     (Michigan) 798. 16  Ibs.  fat 

An  Ayrshire  cow,  Crocus,  is  reported  to  have  given  over 
45  tons  of  milk  during  her  17  years  of  life.  Another  Ayrshire 
cow,  Annie  Bert,  is  reported  to  have  given  over  45  tons  of  milk 
during  twelve  lactation  periods.  She  also  had  a  record  of  nearly 
2  tons  of  butter.  The  University  of  Missouri  had  a  Jersey  cow, 
Hope  of  Ramapo,  that  in  17  years  produced  78,585  pounds  of 
milk,  4,147  pounds  of  butter,  and  15  calves,  thus  bringing 
$1,341.72  into  the  treasury.  The  noted  Jersey  cow,  Jacoba 
Irene,  in  37  months  produced  42,373  pounds  of  milk  and  2,331 
pounds  of  butter-fat.  Another  noted  Jersey,  Sophie  19th.  of 
Hood  Farm,  in  6  years  produced  75,920  pounds  of  milk  and 
4,433  pounds  of  fat.  Lily  of  Willowmoor,  an  Ayrshire  owned 
in  the  state  of  Washington,  produced  84,991  pounds  of  milk 
and  3,362  pounds  of  fat  in  5  years.  The  most  notable  long- 
distance record  is  that  of  the  Holstein  cow  Tilly  Alcartra,  owned 
in  California,  that  has  produced  in  6  consecutive  years  a  total 
of  4,913  pounds  of  butter-fat  and  156,776  pounds  of  milk. 

Cause  of  wide  variation  in  production. — Prof.  C.  H.  Eckles 
of  the  Missouri  Station*  has  determined  why  dairy  cows  vary 
so  widely  in  production  and  profit.  Two  cows  in  the  station 
herd  showing  striking  difference  in  ability  were  selected  for  the 


*Mo.  Res.  Bui.  2. 


168         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

investigation.  They  were  registered  Jerseys,  sired  by  the  same 
bull,  from  dams  distantly  related,  and  they  had  been  raised 
under  practically  the  same  conditions.  The  following  table 
gives  the  facts  regarding  these  two  cows  during  the  first  two 
milking  periods  prior  to  the  investigation: 

Name Pedro's  Ramaposa  Pedro's  Elf 

Date  of  birth Sept.  4,  1902  May  11,  1903 

Age  at  first  calving 29  mo.  18  mo. 

Pounds  milk,  first  lactation  period 4552  878 

Pounds  fat,  first  lactation  period 238 . 8  44 . 1 

Number  of  days  in  milk 337  131 

Pounds  milk,  second  lactation  period  ....  7174  3189 

Pounds  fat,  second  lactation  period 377  114 . 8 

Number  of  days  in  milk 365  232 

During  these  two  lactation  periods,  Pedro's  Ramaposa 
produced  2.8  pounds  of  milk  and  3.9  pounds  of  fat  for  each 
pound  produced  by  Pedro's  Elf.  While  the  second  milking 
period  was  in  progress,  an  investigation  was  planned  to  deter- 
mine the  cause  of  this  difference  in  efficiency  as  dairy  cows. 
The  cows  were  therefore  bred  so  that  the  calves  might  be  born 
as  near  the  same  time  as  possible;  Pedro's  Elf  calved  October 
4,  1907,  and  Pedro's  Ramaposa  calved  October  7. 

Complete  records  were  kept  of  the  amount  and  compo- 
sition of  the  feeds  consumed.  Each  cow  was  fed  a  ration  of 
the  same  composition  at  all  times,  but  the  amount  was  varied 
to  suit  the  individual.  As  there  was  a  possibility  of  the  inferior 
cow  using  part  of  her  feed  for  depositing  fat  on  her  body — a 
characteristic  of  inferior  dairy  cows — each  cow  was  fed  such 
an  amount  as  would  keep  her  at  a  uniform  body  weight.  Thus 
the  feed  consumed  could  be  studied  in  relation  to  dairy  qualities 
only.  They  were  fed  all  they  would  consume,  unless  they  began 
to  lay  on  flesh  and  gain  in  weight.  The  refused  feed  was  col- 
lected, analyzed,  and  deducted  from  the  records.  Complete 
records  were  kept  of  the  milk  produced  and  of  its  composition. 
The  same  man  always  milked  both  cows.  In  order  to  eliminate 
another  disturbing  factor  from  such  an  experiment,  the  cows 
were  kept  farrow;  had  they  carried  calves,  it  would  have  been 
impossible  to  have  accurately  measured  the  feed  requirements 
for  milk  production.  A  digestion  trial  was  conducted  when  the 
cows  were  at  their  maximum  production  to  ascertain  whether 
any  difference  existed  in  the  efficiency  of  digestion. 

At  the  end  of  the  milking  period  the  cows  were  kept  far- 
row and  the  same  ration  was  fed  as  during  the  milking  period; 
this  was  continued  for  90  days,  the  feeding  being  so  regulated 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK  169 

in  quantity  as  to  maintain  the  cows  at  a  uniform  body  weight. 
In  this  way  the  requirement  for  maintenance  was  determined 
for  each  cow.  A  maintenance  ration  is  one  that  will  maintain 
a  resting  animal  at  a  uniform  body  weight;  such  a  ration  keeps 
up  the  body  heat,  makes  repairs  in  the  tissues,  and  furnishes 
energy  for  the  working  of  the  heart,  lungs,  disgestive  and  other 
organs,  and  for  slight  movements  of  the  body.  If  the  dairy 
cow  is  pregnant,  she  requires  enough  feed  above  maintenance 
to  furnish  nourishment  for  the  foetus.  Still  more  feed  in  excess 
of  maintenance  is  necessary  if  she  is  giving  milk  as  well  as  carry- 
ing a  calf.  Cows  vary  somewhat  in  their  maintenance  require- 
ments, hence  two  cows  consuming  the  same  amount  of  feed 
may  have  different  proportions  of  their  feed  available  for  milk 
production.  For  instance,  a  restless  cow  has  a  greater  main- 
tenance requirement  than  a  quiet  one;  when  standing  up,  more 
feed  is  required  for  maintenance  than  when  lying  down.  Many 
other  factors  affect  the  requirement  for  maintenance.  It  is 
therefore  apparent  that  an  investigation  into  the  cause  of  differ- 
ences in  the  economy  of  production  is  not  complete  unless  the 
requirement  for  maintenance  is  determined.  This  the  Missouri 
Station  did  by  finding  how  much  feed  was  necessary  to  maintain 
each  cow  at  a  constant  weight  while  dry  and  farrow.  Other 
experiments  have  shown  that  a  well-fed  dairy  cow  uses  about 
43  per  cent,  of  her  feed  for  maintenance,  30  per  cent,  in  the 
work  of  converting  feed  into  milk,  and  about  20  per  cent,  finally 
appears  as  milk.  These  percentages  vary,  depending  on  the 
nature  of  the  feed  and  the  individual,  but  a  good  dairy  cow  is 
more  efficient  as  a  machine  than  either  the  horse  or  the  steam 
engine.  In  the  Missouri  experiment  it  was  found  that  the 
higher-producing  cow  required  slightly  more  feed  for  mainte- 
nance; hence,  the  wide  variation  in  production  could  not  be 
accounted  for  by  a  superiority  of  the  high-producing  cow  in 
regard  to  maintenance. 

During  the  year  of  the  investigation,  Pedro's  Ramaposa 
produced  8,522  pounds  of  milk  and  469.9  pounds  of  fat.  Pedro's 
Elf  produced  3,188  pounds  of  milk  and  169.3  pounds  of  fat. 
The  former  produced  2.67  pounds  of  milk  and  2.77  pounds  of 
fat  for  each  pound  produced  by  the  latter.  The  digestion  trial 
showed  practically  identical  results,  the  co-efficient  of  digestion 
being  64.39  per  cent,  for  the  best  cow  and  64.99  for  the  poorest 
cow.  Pedro's  Ramaposa  consumed  1.75  pounds  of  feed  for  each 
pound  used  by  the  other  cow,  and  the  real  cause  of  the  differ 


170         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

ence  in  production  was  found  to  be  the  amount  of  feed  con- 
sumed above  maintenance.  The  maintenance  requirement 
being  practically  the  same,  Ramaposa  had  65  per  cent,  of  the 
total  feed  consumed  available  for  milk  production,  and  Elf  had 
only  44.2  per  cent,  thus  available. 

It  was  observed  that  Ramaposa,  when  producing  the  maxi- 
mum milk  yield,  was  practically  to  the  limit  of  her  capacity 
for  handling  feed.  Her  maximum  capacity  for  feed  seemed  to 
coincide  closely  with  the  amount  necessary  to  maintain  her  at 
uniform  weight.  Elf  consumed  all  her  feed,  and  would  have 
taken  slightly  more  had  it  been  offered,  although  she  never 
showed  lack  of  feed.  Ramaposa  had  much  the  stronger  ap- 
petite; she  ate  rapidly,  swallowed  the  grain  with  much  less 
chewing,  and  always  showed  by  her  impatience  to  get  her  feed 
a  much  keener  appetite  than  did  the  latter.  Both  cows  remained 
in  excellent  physical  condition  throughout  the  investigation. 

After  deducting  the  maintenance  requirement,  one  cow 
produced  milk  as  economically  as  the  other.  The  ratio  between 
the  feed  available  for  milk  production  and  the  milk  produced 
was  practically  the  same  for  each  cow.  The  experiment  showed 
that  cows  vary  but  little  in  the  maintenance  requirement,  or 
in  their  ability  to  digest  feed.  A  superior  dairy  cow  is  one  with 
a  large  capacity  for  feed  above  maintenance,  and  one  that  is 
not  disposed  to  take  on  fat,  but  uses  the  feed  above  maintenance 
for  milk  production.  This  once  more  emphasizes  the  impor- 
tance of  a  large,  well-developed  barrel  and  its  significance  in 
judging  dairy  cows,  provided  the  cow  also  has  a  high  degree  of 
dairy  temperament  as  shown  by  her  lean  appearance  when 
heavily  fed  while  in  milk. 

Effect  of  feed  on  quantity  and  composition  of  milk. — The 
general  statement  may  be  made  that  the  quantity  of  milk  is 
dependent  upon  the  amount  of  feed  and  upon  the  inherent  milk- 
giving  qualities  of  the  cow.  Feed  has  an  effect  on  the  quantity 
of  the  milk  yield,  in  that  an  underfed  cow  cannot  produce  to 
the  limit  of  her  ability.  As  shown  in  the  Missouri  experiment, 
however,  heavy  feeding  does  not  increase  the  cow's  ability,  it 
merely  makes  possible  a  production  that  is  up  to  the  limit  of 
her  natural,  inherited  ability.  The  composition  of  the  milk 
cannot  be  permanently  changed  by  any  known  method  of  feed- 
ing; the  composition  is  regulated  by  the  udder  of  the  cow,  each 
cow  having  her  own  characteristic  quality  of  milk.  By  fatten- 
ing dry  cows,  the  fat  content  of  the  milk  is  temporarily  raised 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         171 

when  the  cows  freshen.  It  is  known  that  cows  fed  cottonseed 
meal  yield  butter  that  is  hard  and  tallowy,  with  a  high  melting 
point,  while  linseed  meal  produces  a  soft  butter  with  a  low 
melting  point.  In  spite  of  these  and  other  minor  exceptions, 
it  may  be  said  that  improvement  in  the  composition  of  milk 
is  a  breeding,  rather  than  a  feeding,  problem.  The  feeder  can 
only  supply  feed  in  such  amount  as  will  permit  the  cow  to  give 
a  maximum  flow  of  milk.  But  as  we  have  seen,  two  cows  may 
produce  far  different  quantities  of  milk  when  given  the  best  of 
care,  so  that  increase  in  the  quantity  of  milk  is  also  a  problem 
for  the  breeder.  Cows  are  born  with  certain  inherent  abilities; 
feeding  can  assist  these  inherent  abilities  to  reveal  themselves, 
but  cannot  permanently  alter  them.  Great  cows  are  born  great. 
Their  greatness  will  not  be  realized,  however,  unless  they  are 
given  good  care  and  plenty  of  the  right  kind  of  feed  to  use  in 
manufacturing  milk.  No  matter  how  large  and  efficient  a  fac- 
tory may  be,  it  cannot  turn  out  much  product  unless  it  has 
available  an  abundant  supply  of  the  raw  material,  but  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  raw  material  will  not  raise  the  output  of  a  poorly 
equipped  or  inefficient  plant  above  a  certain  low  maximum. 
It  is  far  more  correct  to  say  that  a  well-fed  dairy  cow  eats  be- 
cause she  gives  milk,  than  it  is  to  say  that  she  gives  milk  because 
she  eats. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
BREEDING  FOR  MILK  PRODUCTION. 

In  1919,  there  were  23,467,000  dairy  cows  on  farms  in  the 
United  States,  and  they  were  valued  at  $78.24  per  head.  If 
put  in  single  file,  allowing  ten  feet  of  space  for  each  animal^ 
they  would  make  a  line  over  44,000  miles  long,  or  would  form 
a  procession  fourteen  abreast  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco. 

On  January  1,  1919,  the  leading  states  in  numbers  of  dairy 
cows,  and  their  average  prices  per  head,  were  as  follows: 

1.  Wisconsin . .      . .  1,803,000  $82.  6.  Texas .  .  . .  1,060,000  $63 . 

2.  New  York 1,478,000  89.             7.  Ohio 1,030,000  83. 

3.  Iowa 1,381,000  86.  8.  Pennsylvania. . .    979,000  85. 

4.  Minnesota 1,368,000  78.             9.  Kansas 964,000  81. 

5.  Illinois 1,060,000  90.           10.  Missouri 919,000  74. 

The  distribution  of  dairy  cows,  by  geographical  divisions, 
on  January  1,  1919,  was  as  follows: 

No*th  Atlantic .  .  3,515,000 

South  Atlantic 1,963,000 

North  Central,  East  of  Mississippi  River 5,454,000 

North  Central,  West  of  Mississippi  River 6,284,000 

South  Central 4,294,000 

Far  Western..  1,957,000 


Total,  United  States 23,467,000 

No  greater  strides  have  been  made  in  animal  breeding 
during  recent  years  than  have  been  made  by  breeders  of  pure- 
bred dairy  cattle.  The  methods  used  are  very  practical  because 
they  are  based  on  accurate  knowledge  of  the  producing  ability 
of  the  animals  bred,  such  knowledge  being  secured  by  tests  of 
the  various  cows  in  the  herd.  The  dairyman  engaged  in  the 
production  of  market  milk  or  butter-fat  has,  in  many  instances, 
seen  the  benefits  arising  from  keeping  records  and  using  them 
as  a  basis  for  improving  his  herd  and  has  greatly  benefited  by 
adopting  the  methods  used  by  the  more  progressive  breeders 
of  purebred  dairy  cattle.  There  is  great  need  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  average  dairy  cow  of  the  country.  The  small  num- 
ber of  purebred  dairy  cows  makes  it  inadvisable  to  recommend 
that  this  improvement  shall  be  accomplished  by  replacing  the 
average  cow  with  a  purebred  cow,  and  that  all  milk  and  butter- 
fat  shall  be  produced  by  purebred  cattle.  However,  this  ideal 
is  easily  possible  of  close  approximation  by  using  purebred  dairy 

172 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


173 


bulls  to  grade  up  the  ordinary  dairy  cows  of  the  country.  There 
is  no  good  argument  in  behalf  of  keeping  any  except  a  purebred 
dairy  bull  at  the  head  of  any  dairy  herd.  No  progressive  dairy- 
man will  take  chances  in  raising  a  heifer  calf  for  milk  purposes 
whose  sire  is  either  a  beef  bull  or  a  mongrel.  The  necessity 
for  using  purebred  sires  to  breed  to  common  cows  and  the  finan- 
cial advantage  of  such  a  policy  was  pointed  out  in  Chapter  IX., 
in  which  the  breeding  of  beef  cattle  for  the  market  was  dis- 
cussed. The  arguments  there  presented  apply  with  equal  force 
to  the  breeding  of  dairy  cattle. 

Tests  which  strikingly  illustrate  the  effect  of  a  purebred 
sire  in  improving  a  herd  of  scrub  dairy  cows  have  been  conducted 
at  the  Iowa  Station*  by  Kildee  and  McCandlish.  The  results 
presented  in  the  following  table  show  the  average  yearly  pro- 
duction of  the  original  scrub  cows  and  the  greatly  increased 
ability  of  their  daughters  and  granddaughters  sired  by  good 
purebred  dairy  bulls.  All  were  fed  and  cared  for  alike,  and  no 
animals  were  weeded  out  during  the  experiment,  so  that  the 
improvement  secured  can  be  credited  only  to  the  use  of  good 
purebred  sires: 


Sire 

Scrub    dams 

Daughters 

Granddaughters 

Milk 
Ibs. 

Fat,   Ibs. 

Milk, 
Ibs. 

Fat,   Ibs. 

Milk, 
Ibs. 

Fat,   Ibs. 

Guernsey  . 

3687 
3782 
3463 

168 
176 
168 

5102 
6840 
5009 

241 
273 
264 

5810 
11127 
5411 

301 
420 

287 

Holstein  
Jersey  

Average  of  all  

3660 

172 

5999 

261 

8402 

358 

If  the  results  are  expressed  on  the  percentage  basis,  the 
percentage  increase  in  production  of  the  daughters  and  grand- 
daughters over  the  original  scrub  cows  may  be  determined. 
The  following  table  shows  this  percentage  increase: 


Sire 

Daughters 

Granddaughters 

Milk 
per  cent. 

Fat 
per  cent. 

Milk 
per  cent. 

Fat 
per  cent. 

Guernsey  
Holstein  
Jersey  . 

38 
81 
45 

43 
55 

57 

58 
194 
56 

79 
138 
71 

Average.  . 

64 

52 

130 

109 

*Iowa  Buls.  165  and  188. 


174 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Scrub  Cow  No.  56. 
Average  yearly  pro- 
duction 3874.6  Ibs.  of 
milk  and  192.62  Ibs. 
of  fat. 


Half-blood  Holstein 
No.  77,  out  of  Scrub 
No.  56.  Average 
yearly  production 
6955.5  Ibs.  of  milk 
and  266.25  Ibs.  of  fat. 


Three-quarter- 
blood  Holstein  No. 
233,  out  of  half-blood 
Holstein  No.  77.  Av- 
erage yearly  produc- 
tion 12804.2  Ibs.  of 
milk  and  482.54  Ibs. 
of  fat. 


Fig.  50.     What  Good  Purebred  Sires  Can  Do. 

Improved  production  in  two  generations  through  the  use  of  purebred 
Holstein  sires.     From  the  Iowa  experiment. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         175 

The  half-blood  daughters,  carrying  50  per  cent,  of  improved 
breeding,  showed  an  increase  of  52  per  cent,  in  butter-fat  pro- 
duction as  compared  to  their  scrub  dams.  The  granddaugh- 
ters, carrying  75  per  cent,  of  improved  breeding,  showed  an 
increase  of  109  per  cent,  in  butter-fat  production  as  compared 
to  their  scrub  grandams.  In  other  words,  the  production  of 
this  herd  was  doubled  in  two  generations  through  the  use  of 
good  dairy  sires. 

By  going  to  the  same  breed  each  time  a  sire  is  selected, 
the  dairyman  soon  acquires  a  herd  of  very  high-grade  cows, 
having  only  a  very  small  percentage  of  scrub  ancestry.  Good 
grade  dairy  cows  often  rival  their  purebred  cousins  in  produc- 
tion, and  many  have  sold  at  prices  considerably  above  $200. 
By  using  purebred  sires,  and  by  weeding  out  the  poor  producers 
and  retaining  the  high-producing  cows  and  their  heifer  calves, 
an  inferior  herd  may  be  revolutionized  and  made  to  yield  a  profit. 
In  this  way  the  dairyman  is  enabled  to  raise  his  standards  higher 
and  higher,  each  year  eliminating  from  his  herd  those  cows 
which  fail  to  reach  the  mark.  Eventually  a  herd  is  built  up 
in  which  every  cow  returns  a  large  profit  on  the  feed  and  care 
invested  in  her  during  the  year. 

The  following  records  made  by  the  herd  of  Peder  Peder- 
sen  &  Son  in  the  Benson  Cow  Testing  Association,  Cedar  Falls, 
Iowa,  in  three  consecutive  years  show  what  may  be  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  good  sires,  the  keeping  of  records,  weeding 
out  the  poor  cows,  and  by  proper  feeding  and  management: 

Average        Net  income 

Average  milk  per  cow  butter-fat      per  cow  over 

per  cow,  Ibs.    cost  of  feed 

1911  5665  pounds 207.7  $22.12 

Largest  net  income  cow  in  herd 54 . 22 

1912  7060  pounds 251.9  53.96 

Largest  net  income  cow  in  herd 106.30 

1913  9697. 47  pounds , 341.98  75.00 

Two  largest  net  income  cows,  each 144. 00 

This  herd  was  made  up  of  grades  and  a  few  purebred  Hoi- 
steins,  and  the  number  of  cows  remained  about  the  same  during 
the  three  years  reported.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year  it  was 
found  that  40  per  cent,  of  the  cows  were  unprofitable.  They 
were  sent  to  the  butcher,  and  their  places  in  the  herd  were  taken 
by  two-year-old  heifers  sired  by  a  purebred  sire  out  of  common 
cows.  At  the  end  of  the  second  year,  30  per  cent,  of  the  cows 


176         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

were  "weeded  out"  and  their  places  taken  by  two-year-old  grade 
heifers,  one  purebred  cow,  and  one  purebred  two-year-old  heifer. 
The  end  of  the  third  year's  work  showed  that  the  average  milk 
production  had  been  increased  over  71  per  cent.,  the  butter-fat 
60  per  cent.,  and  the  average  net  profit  per  cow  increased  from 
$22.12  to  $75.00,  or  239  per  cent. 

Selection  of  the  dairy  bull. — If  fifteen  or  twenty  dairy  bulls 
are  brought  before  a  judge  recognized  as  competent,  and  he  is 
asked  to  pick  out  the  bull  that  will  sire  the  highest-producing 
cows,  he  will  be  unable  to  do  so  with  any  degree  of  certainty 
by  studying  their  individualities.  He  may  easily  eliminate 
some  of  them  because  of  lack  of  constitution,  weak  masculinity, 
or  because  they  show  a  decided  tendency  towards  fleshiness. 
Having  such  faults,  he  is  reasonably  certain  that  they  will  not 
prove  sure  breeders,  or  that  their  heifer  calves  will  not  develop 
into  high  producers.  Having  eliminated  certain  ones,  there 
will  probably  be  several  bulls  remaining  that  have  no  serious 
faults  in  conformation,  and  among  these  it  is  mere  guesswork 
to  attempt  to  select  the  most  successful  sire.  Whereas  the  beef 
bull  carries  his  evidence  of  merit  upon  his  back,  the  true  value 
of  the  dairy  bull  can  only  be  judged  by  the  kind  of  cows  in  his 
ancestry,  the  kind  of  cows  he  sires,  or  by  both.  The  judging 
of  dairy  bulls  in  the  show  ring  is  much  less  conducive  to  good 
results  in  the  improvement  qf  cattle  than  is  the  judging  of  beef 
bulls. 

As  a  general  rule,  when  valuing  a  purebred  animal,  more 
emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  individuality  than  upon  pedi- 
gree; but  the  dairy  bull  is  an  exception.  On  a  basis  of  100 
points  given  to.  the  bull's  selection,  it  is  conservative  to  state 
that  40  points  should  be  allotted  to  his  individuality,  and  60 
points  to  the  records  of  performance  in  his  pedigree.  All  pure- 
bred dairy  bulls  have  pedigrees,  but  in  many  cases  no  records 
were  kept  of  the  production  of  their  female  ancestors;  in  such 
cases  the  pedigree  has  no  special  significance,  and  little  im- 
portance can  be  attached  to  it.  When  records  of  performance 
of  the  ancestors  are  available,  the  bull  is  said  to  have  a  "pedigree 
with  performance,"  and  to  such  a  pedigree  much  attention  should 
be  given  when  selecting  a  bull. 

If  the  bull  is  matured  and  has  been  long  enough  in  service 
so  that  he  has  heifers  in  milk,  they  furnish  the  best  evidence  of 
the  bull's  value  as  a  breeder.  In  this  connection,  however,  the 
dams  of  the  heifers  must  be  studied,  as  the  seeming  success  of 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


177 


the  bull  may  be  very  largely  due  to  the  excellence  of  the  cows 
with  which  he  is  mated.  If  the  dams  are  inferior  and  the  heifers 
are  good,  all  the  more  credit  is  due  the  sire.  Most  of  the  trade 
in  purebred  dairy  bulls  is  in  bull  calves,  for  only  rarely  will  a. 
successful  bull,  as  shown  by  actual  trial,  be  offered  for  sale. 

The  best  indication  of  the  future  breeding  value  of  a  dairy- 
bull  calf  is  furnished  by  the  milk  and  butter-fat  records  of  hisj 


Imp.  May  Rose  King  8336,  A.  R.  41. 

Sire  of:                         Milk      Bufaf" 

Rosa  Rubra  14329.15    788.89 

Florham  Daisy  14876.60    747.08 

Imp.  King  of  the  May  9001,  A.  R.  72. 

Sire  of:  Milk  Buf«^ 
Langwater  Dorothy  .  .  .  16099.70  781  .65 
Langwater  Hope.  ...15078.80  773.59 
Langwater  Rosie  15083.00  724.23 
Langwater  Princess.  .  .12280.50  651.19 
Lang.  May  Queen.  ...11275.70  592.84 
Langwater  Daisy  10710.30  557.55 
Lang.  May  Rose  9212.50  530.06 
Langwater  FeloIS  9445.90  529.81 
Langwater  Milkmaid..  9550.20  510.05 
Sister  Sue  of  Lang.  .  .10290.70  469.60 

May  Rose  Queen  12548.30    667.19 
ComefS*  Rose  12861.15    641.79 
Queen  of  the  Roses.   ..12223.25    604.94 
Florham  Pride  10860.60    591.85 
Anton's  May  Rose.  .  .  .10778.70    591.55 
Southern  Rose  12774.10    583.00 
May  Rose  of  Kent.  .  .  .10779.65    556.56 
Rutila's  May  Rose         9701.10    556.40 
Queen  of  May  Rose..  11448.90    539.03 
Pride  of  Place  10035.50    531.26 
And  seven  other  A.  R.  daughters. 
Also  sire  of  nine  A.  R.  sons. 

1 

Hayes  Queen  May.  .  .  .  7904.30    406.94 
Also  sire  of  seven  A.  R.  sons 

• 

Imp.  Itchen  Daisy  3d  15630,  A.  R.  100. 

I 

Record:  13636.80  Ibs.  milk;  714.10  Ibs. 
butter-fat.    Sold  for  $4,000. 

B 

Dam  of: 

S3 

Florham  Daisy  14876.60    748.08 

as 

Langwater  Dairymaid  13747.50    670.12 
Also  dam  of  one  A.  R.  son. 

I 

o 

•r 

Pocomoke  6075,  A.  R,  74. 

Sire  of: 

Dolly  Bloom  of  Lang  .  .  12024.50    632.34 
Nelly  Jay  9576.10    477.27 

Carrie  Bell  7605.00    373.38 

Also  sire  of  three  A.  R.  sons. 

Dolly  Bloom  of  Langwater  15452,  A.  R. 

674. 

Record:  12024.50  Ibs.  milk;  632.34  Ibs. 

butter-fat. 

Dam  of: 

Lang.  Dolly  Bloom.  .  .  13250.80  714.60 

Also  dam  of  one  A.  R.  son. 

Dolly  Bloom  12770,  A.  R.  40. 

Record:  17297.51  Ibs.  milk;  836.21  Ibs. 

butter-fat. 

Dam  of: 

Dolly  Dimple.           ...18808.50    876.34 

Dolly  Bloom  of  Lang    12024.50    632.34 

Also  dam  of  two  A.  R.  sons. 

hchen  Jewel  1112  E.  G.  H.  B, 

3d   prize,    Bath   and    West,    England, 

1899. 
2d  prize,  Royal  Counties,  1899. 

Sire  of:  Milk 

Royal  Rose  of  Easton . .  9576.90  517.80 
1st  at  Royal  Show,  1902. 

daremont  May  Rose  8648  E.  G.  H.  B. 

2d  prize  over  Island,  1895. 

1st  prize  over  Island,  1896-7-8. 

1st  prize  in  England,  1897. 

1st  prize  at  nearly  all  JEnglish  shows  of 

1890-91-92. 

1st  and  Championship,  1902. 
1st  at  London  Dairy  Show,  1901. 
Dam  of  Imp.  May  Rose  4th-^42  Ibs. 

butter-fat. 

May  Day  1132  E.  G.  H.  B. 

1st  prize  Royal  Counties  Show,  1898. 

1st  Bath  and  West,  1899. 

Sire   of   Suzerain,    3d  prize  Bath  and 

West,  1900. 

H.  C.  Royal  Counties,  1900. 
C.  Royal,  1900;  2d  East  Kent,  1901. 
Grandsire    of  Melanie  of  Goodnestone 

3d— 7415.60    Ibs.    milk;    387.76    Ibs. 

butter-fat. 

Daisy  Gem  3341  E.  G.  H.  B. 

John  R.  Gentry  4655. 

Half  brother  to  Glenwood  Boy  of 
Haddon,  A.  R.  8,  sire  of  Jedetta  of 
Pinehurst— 15109.10  Ibs.  milk;  778.80 
Ibs.  butter-fat.  Also  sire  of  25  other 
A.  R.  daughters,  and  14  A.  R.  sons. 

Dosia  2d  10072. 

Divan  5846,  A.  R.  98. 

Sire  of: 

Dolly  Bloom 17297.51    836.21 

Dolly  Dillon 11867.30    532.21 

Belle  Wilson 8434.40    423.55 

Also  sire  of  two  A.  R.  sons. 

Quest*  11385. 

Dam  of: 

Dolly  Bloom 17297.51    836.21 

Dolly   Bloom's  sister 

Ray 7887.20    390.96 

Also  dam  of  two  A.  R.  sons. 


dam.  If  any  of  her  female  offspring  have  records  of  production, 
these  also  furnish  valuable  evidence.  Next,  the  records  of  the 
cows  sired  by  his  sire  should  be  studied,  if  such  records  are 
available.  After  that,  the  performance  of  the  paternal  and 
maternal  grandams  should  be  noted,  together  with  the  per- 
formance of  their  female  offspring.  The  grandsires'  lists  of 
performers  should  be  studied  also,  and,  if  possible,  similar  studies 
should  be  made  of  the  great-grandams  and  great-grandsires. 
The  fundamental  principle  underlying  breeding  is  that  "like 


178         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

begets  like/'  and  if  the  bull  has  a  high-producing  ancestry, 
high-producing  sisters,  and  the  other  female  members  of  his 
family  are  high  producers,  we  are  reasonably  certain  that  he 
has  inherited  true  dairy  qualities  of  a  high  order  which  he  will 
transmit  to  his  offspring. 

As  a  fine  example  of  a  pedigree  with  performance,  the 
pedigree  of  the  Guernsey  bull,  May  King  of  Ingleside  12558, 
is  herewith  presented.  Such  a  bull  commands  too  high  a  price 
to  permit  using  him  on  grade  cows,  and  the  average  dairyman 
seeking  a  sire  cannot  expect  to  obtain  a  bull  with  a  pedigree  equal 
to  this  one,  although  he  may  be  able  to  secure  a  son  or  grandson 
of  such  a  bull  at  the  price  he  can  afford  to  pay. 

There  is  danger  of  over-emphasizing  the  importance  of 
pedigrees  when  breeding  any  kind  of  live  stock,  and  this  is  es- 
pecially true  if  records  of  tests  are  included  in  the  pedigrees,  as 
is  the  case  with  many  trotting  horses  and  dairy  cattle.  Some 
breeders  have  selected  and  mated  their  animals  solely  upon 
the  basis  of  records,  without  any  consideration  of  individuality. 
Animal  breeding  is  not  successfully  supervised  when  the  owner 
decides  upon  matings  from  pedigrees  spread  out  before  him  in 
his  office  or  by  the  parlor  lamp.  If  this  is  done,  and  individ- 
uality is  neglected,  defects  of  conformation  may  gain  a  foothold 
in  his  herd  and  eventually  defeat  his  plans.  For  instance,  two 
animals  may  be  selected  for  mating  because  of  the  excellence 
of  their  breeding;  in  other  words,  the  mating  looks  good  on 
paper;  but  weakness  of  constitution  may  be  common  to  both 
of  them,  and  if  so,  it  is  probable  that  their  offspring  will  exhibit 
this  defect  in  greater  degree,  so  as  to  prevent  the  fulfillment  of 
the  offspring's  inherited  tendency  to  high  production. 

Enough  attempts  at  selecting  and  mating  animals  purely 
on  the  basis  of  records  have  met  with  failure  to  show  that  such 
procedure  is  very  liable  to  wreck  the  herd.  The  breeder  must 
refuse  to  be  carried  away  by  performance  to  the  extent  of  buying 
merely  a  pedigree.  Choose  several  good  individuals,  and  then 
let  the  pedigrees  be  the  basis  for  the  final  choice.  A  meritorious 
individual  should  accompany  the  meritorious  pedigree. 

Advantages  of  dairy  farming. — Dairy  farming  has  the  fol- 
lowing advantages: 

1.  The  dairy  cow  is  well  adapted  to  diversified  and  inten- 
sive farming  where  the  farmer  strives  to  produce  the  greatest 
possible  income  from  a  small  acreage.  Striking  examples  of  this 
fact  are  found  in  Holland,  Denmark,  and  the  Island  of  Jersey. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         179 

2.  If  the  manure  is  properly  conserved  and  used,  dairy 
farming  increases  soil  fertility.    A  ton  of  butter  removes  only 
64  cents'  worth  of  plant  food  from  the  farm,  while  a  ton  of  corn 
removes  $6.56  worth  of  plant  food.     By  feeding  the  crops  and 
purchased  supplementary  feeds  to  dairy  cows,  the  land  may  be 
made  more  productive. 

3.  The  dairy  cow  is  a  continuous  source  of  revenue.       The 
cream  or  milk  checks  come  in  at  frequent  and  regular  intervals. 

4.  Skim  milk  is  a  most  excellent  feed  for  hogs  and  poultry. 

5.  Good  grade  and  purebred  dairy  cows  meet  with  ready 
sale. 

It  is  also  true  that  the  dairy  cow  yields  about  six  times  as 
much  edible  solids  in  her  milk  for  every  100  pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients  consumed  as  the  beef  steer  or  mutton  sheep  in  its 
carcass.  The  dairy  cow  is  a  more  economical  producer  of  food 
for  human  beings  than  is  the  steer,  sheep,  or  pig. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
DUAL-PURPOSE  CATTLE. 

Dual-purpose  cattle  are  all-purpose  or  general-purpose 
cattle.  They  occupy  a  position  midway  between  the  beef  and 
the  dairy  types,  the  aim  being  to  combine  the  good  points  of 
both  beef  and  dairy  cattle  as  nearly  as  possible.  The  dual- 
purpose  cow,  however,  does  not  give  as  much  milk  as  the  dairy 
cow,  nor  does  she  make  as  much  beef  as  the  beef  cow.  At  present 
the  demand  for  dual-purpose  cattle  is  comparatively  limited, 
although  it  has  been  predicted  that  many  farms  will  eventually 
adopt  the  dual-purpose  type  as  the  one  most  profitable.  It  is 
also  believed  that  those  who  maintain  beef  breeding  herds  will 
in  the  future  pay  more  attention  to  the  milking  qualities  of  their 
cows. 

Perhaps  no  subject  relating  to  cattle  has  aroused  so  much 
discussion  as  has  the  type,  economic  importance,  and  probable 
future  of  the  dual-purpose  cow.  It  has  been  argued  that  the 
day  of  general-purpose  animals  is  past.  It  is  said  that  this  is 
a  day  of  specialization  in  all  things,  and  that  better  results  and 
more  profit  are  obtained  from  animals  which  do  one  thing  and 
do  it  well,  than  are  obtained  from  animals  which  do  two  or  three 
things  in  a  mediocre  way.  While  it  is  true  that  the  tendency 
in  the  live-stock  world  is  more  and  more  toward  highly  spe- 
cialized types  of  animals,  it  is  also  true  that  there  are  good  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  a  dual-purpose  type  of  cattle.  Of  these  argu- 
ments, the  best  one  is  that  there  is  need  of  a  farmer's  cow;  that 
is,  a  cow  for  the  farmer  who  is  neither  a  beef  producer  nor  a 
dairyman,  but  who  wants  to  produce  enough  meat  and  milk 
for  his  own  use.  Such  a  man  wants  a  cow  that  gives  a  good 
flow  of  milk,  and  yet  one  that  has  a  strong  enough  beef  tendency 
to  produce  a  calf  that  will  feed  out  well  and  make  a  good  carcass; 
in  other  words,  this  man  wants  a  dual-purpose  cow.  There 
can  be  no  doubting  this  argument  and  it  was  this  demand  which 
made  the  old-time  Shorthorn  the  popular  cow  with  farmers 
fifty  or  sixty  years  ago. 

Another  argument  frequently  advanced  in  behalf  of  dual- 
purpose  cattle  is  that  beef  production  on  high-priced  land  must, 
in  the  future,  come  from  a  dual-purpose  type  of  cattle.  On  west- 
ISO 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


181 


ern  ranches  where  land  is  cheap,  a  calf  is  all  the  return  a  cow 
need  give  in  order  to  make  her  profitable,  but  the  cornbelt  far- 
mer on  $100  and  $200  land  cannot  conduct  a  business  on  the 
same  basis  as  the  western  ranchman.  It  is  argued  that  a  farmer 
on  high-priced  land  cannot  afford  to  keep  a  cow  that  produces 
calves  suitable  for  feeding  into  beef  unless  she  pays  for  her 
board,  in  part  at  least,  with  a  fair  amount  of  butter-fat.  It  is 
argued  that  he  can  no  more  afford  this  than  he  can  afford  to 
keep  mutton  sheep  which  produce  lambs,  but  no  wool.  The 
advocates  of  the  dual-purpose  cow  claim  that  she  will  be  the 


Fig.  51.     The  Dual-Purpose  Type. 

Milking  Shorthorn  cow,  Pansy  2d.,  first  prize  winner  at  Carlisle,  England, 
in  1914.  Imported  and  owned  by  Mr.  J.  J.  Hill,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

salvation  of  future  beef  production.  However  this  may  be, 
changes  will  come  gradually  and  it  seems  probable  that  the 
beef-type  animal  is  destined  to  continue  popular  for  some  years 
to  come. 

The  methods  of  management  where  dual-purpose  herds 
are  kept  vary  considerably.  Sometimes  the  production  of  beef 
is  given  most  attention  and  the  milking  qualities  of  the  cows 
are  esteemed  only  as  a  source  of  feed  for  the  calves.  At  the 
other  extreme  are  herds  managed  as  dairy  herds,  the  beefiness 


182         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

of  the  cows  making  possible  a  good  income  from  choice  veal 
calves  reared  on  skim  milk  and  supplemental  feeds.  Neither 
of  these  plans  represents  true  dual-purpose  management.  The 
dual-purpose  cow  is  at  her  best  when  the  plan  calls  for  the  sale 
of  milk  or  butter-fat  and  the  rearing  of  calves  to  be  fed  and 
marketed  as  fat  steers  and  heifers,  or  sold  into  other  hands  for 
feeding.  All  of  the  cows  may  be  milked,  the  butter-fat  sold, 
and  the  skim  milk  fed  to  the  calves;  or  half  of  the  cows  may  be 
milked  and  the  rest  allowed  to  raise  the  calves.  The  writer 
knows  of  one  successful  herd  of  grade  cows  where  the  practice 
is  to  put  four  calves  on  one  cow,  the  other  three  cows  being  milked. 
The  development  of  the  calves  is  somewhat  restricted  by  this 
method,  for  they  do  not  make  as  rapid  growth  nor  present  as 
good  appearance  as  would  be  secured  by  more  liberal  feeding, 
but  in  this  instance  the  financial  return  has  justified  the  plan. 

It  is  considerable  trouble  to  rear  calves  on  skim  milk,  but 
it  is  being  done  with  good  results  on  many  farms.  The  skim 
milk  should  be  supplemented  by  oats,  bran,  corn  meal,  hay, 
and  good  pasture  until  weaning  time,  and  the  calf  should  be 
wintered  on  grain,  silage,  and  hay.  When  weaned  and  placed 
on  regular  rations,  skim-milk  calves  usually  advance  rapidly 
and  often  overtake  calves  reared  on  whole  milk  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  they  cannot  be  distinguished  from  the  latter. 

Dual-purpose  type. — Descriptions  of  the  beef  and  dairy 
types  having  been  given  in  detail,  dual-purpose  type  may  be 
described  in  a  few  words  by  comparisons.  The  true  dual- 
purpose  type  of  animal  is  distinguished  from  the  beef  animal 
by  certain  well-marked  differences  in  form  and  appearance. 
The  dual-purpose  animal  is  not  so  wide  as  the  beef  animal, 
nor  so  smooth,  and  the  fleshing  is  not  so  thick.  The  neck  is 
longer,  the  withers  are  not  so  wide  and  rounding,  the  middle 
is  less  blocky  and  compact,  and  the  legs  are  longer.  The  udder 
receives  considerable  attention  and  should  be  large,  mellow, 
and  of  good  shape.  The  dual-purpose  cow  should  bear  indica- 
tions of  creditable  performance  at  the  pail. 

Compared  with  the  dairy  type,  the  dual-purpose  animal 
shows  more  squareness  and  fullness  of  forequarters,  more  width 
and  compactness  of  body,  more  fleshing  and  smoothness.  The 
spring  of  rib  is  more  pronounced,  the  back  is  wider,  the  withers 
are  thicker,  the  shoulder  is  heavier  fleshed  and  smoother,  and 
the  thigh  and  twist  are  much  more  heavily  fleshed.  Dual- 
purpose  cows  that  give  a  generous  milk  flow  will  carry  less 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         183 

flesh  during  the  milking  period,  but  when  dry  they  take  on 
flesh  readily.  Their  calves  have  a  reasonably  good  fleshing 
when  fed  for  market,  especially  if  sired  by  a  beef -type  bull. 

When  dual-purpose  cattle  are  brought  into  the  ring  at 
fairs  and  expositions,  it  is  readily  observable  that  marked  varia- 
tions in  type  exist,  ranging  from  near  the  dairy  type  to  the  lower 
limits  of  beef  type.  What  is  regarded  as  a  typical  dual-purpose 
animal  by  one  man  will  not  always  suit  another,  but  will  be 
criticised  as  leaning  too  much  toward  the  beef  type  or  the  dairy 
type.  Some  men  accept  a  beef  cow  with  a  larger  udder  than 
usual  as  a  typical  dual-purpose  animal;  others  have  in  mind  a 
dairy  cow  showing  more  beefiness  than  common.  In  the  show 


f 


Fig.  52.     The  Dual-Purpose  Type. 

Red  Polled  bull,  Teddy's  Best,  thirty-two  times  a  Champion,  and  a  very 
noted  sire.     Owned  by  Jean  Du  Luth  Farms,  Duluth,  Minn. 

rings  of  this  country  much  dissatisfaction  has  arisen  over  the 
judging  of  dual-purpose  cattle;  some  judges  have  apparently 
awarded  the  prizes  upon  the  beef  qualities  of  the  animals  shown, 
while  other  judges  have  leaned  almost  as  much  the  other  way. 
A  judge  at  one  show  will  select  certain  animals  as  prize  winners, 
and  at  another  show,  with  the  same  cattle  on  exhibition,  an 
almost  complete  reversal  will  be  made  in  the  awards — hence  the 
dissatisfaction.  As  time  goes  on,  breeders  are  getting  closer 
together  in  their  ideals  of  a  dual-purpose  animal,  although 
there  can  never  be  the  uniformity  of  ideals  which  prevails  among 


184        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

breeders  of  either  beef  or  dairy  cattle.  This  is  true  because 
beef  and  dairy  types  represent  extremes,  while  the  dual-purpose 
type  is  an  average  of  these  two,  or  represents  the  middle  ground. 

Profits  from  dual-purpose  cattle. — In  an  investigation  into 
the  methods  and  cost  of  growing  beef  cattle  in  the  cornbelt 
states  in  1914  and  1915,  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
obtained  596  records  from  farms  in  Indiana,  Illinois,  Minnesota, 
Iowa,  Missouri,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas.*  Farms 
where  cows  were  kept  for  distinctly  dairy  purposes  or  where  the 
herds  were  maintained  only  for  the  production  and  sale  of  pure- 
bred animals  for  breeding  purposes  were  omitted.  Records 
were  procured  on  14,634  cows  and  621  bulls,  and  on  12,591 
calves  produced  from  them,  of  which  2,023  were  fattened  for 
baby  beef.  Six  distinct  practices  in  beef  production  were  noted, 
as  follows: 

Beef. — Farms  where  all  the  cows  are  kept  strictly  for  beef 
(not  including  farms  producing  baby  beef). 

Baby  beef. — Farms  maintaining  breeding  herds  for  the 
production  of  high-grade  calves  which  are  fattened  on  the  same 
farm  and  sold  at  from  12  to  18  months  of  age  as  baby  beef. 

Dual-purpose. — Farms  on  which  all  of  the  cows  are  milked, 
and  either  cream  or  butter-fat  sold,  the  calves  being  weaned 
at  birth  and  raised  on  skim  milk. 

Mixed. — Farms  on  which  the  best  cows  are  milked,  their 
calves  being  weaned  at  birth  and  fed  skim  milk.  Calves  from 
the  other  cows  are  allowed  to  run  with  their  dams  as  in  the 
beef  group. 

Partially  milked.— Farms  on  which  the  calves  are  not 
weaned,  but  on  which  a  part  of  the  milk  is  drawn  from  the  cow, 
the  calf  taking  the  remainder. 

''  '  Dbuble  nursing.— Farms  where  some  of  the  cows  are  milked 
and  their  calves  given  to  other  cows,  the  latter  raising  two  calves 
each. 

The  cost  of  calves  at  weaning  time,  the  cost  of  raising 
yearlings,  and  the  profit  or  loss  on  the  yearlings  was  determined 
for  each  of  the  six  groups.  The  accompanying  table,  showing  the 
various  factors  that  make  up  the  cost  of  producing  a  yearling 
and  summarizing  the  results  of  the  investigation,  indicates  the 
economy  of  dual-purpose  herds  as  beef  producers.  However, 
as  this  table  is  studied,  it  is  well  for  the  reader  to  keep  in  mind 


*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Report  111,  by  Cotton,  Cooper,  Ward,  and  Ray. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


185 


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186         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

the  fact  that  no  profits  were  allowed  for  the  dairying  practiced 
by  the  owners  of  the  dual-purpose,  mixed,  partially  milked, 
and  double  nursing  herds;  instead,  the  returns,  including  profits, 
from  the  sale  of  milk  have  been  used  to  lower  the  cost  of  the 
calf.  Robbing  one  department  of  a  farm  of  profit  in  order  that 
another  department  may  be  credited  so  as  to  show  a  profit  may 
represent  skillful  book-keeping,  but  results  based  on  such  a 
method  of  cost  accounting  are  somewhat  misleading.  In  this 
case  it  should  be  remembered  that  dairying  was  conducted  at 
cost,  the  profits  being  credited  to  beef  production. 

The  greatest  item  of  expense  in  raising  a  calf  to  weaning 
time,  except  in  the  dual-purpose  group,  is  the  cow  charge,  or  net 
cost  of  keeping  a  cow  a  year.  The  net  cost  of  maintaining  a  cow 
varied  greatly,  depending  largely  upon  the  sale  of  milk  products 
from  cows  that  were  milked.  It  was  therefore  lowest  in  the 
dual-purpose  group. 

The  cost  of  the  calf  at  weaning  time  is  lowest  in  the  double- 
nursing  group.  While  the  cow  charge  was  lowest  in  the  dual- 
purpose  group,  the  addition  of  the  cost  of  feed  and  labor  for  the 
skim-milk  calves  made  the  cost  of  the  calf  somewhat  greater 
than  in  the  double-nursing  group. 

The  cost  of  the  calf  at  one  year  was  lowest  in  the  double- 
nursing  group. 

The  calves  in  the  dual-purpose  group,  although  poorest  in 
merit  and  value,  ranked  third  in  profit. 

The  calves  in  the  double-nursing  group  were  relatively  of 
good  quality  and  showed  the  greatest  profit. 

The  data  obtained  indicate  that  the  keeping  of  cattle  for 
beef  purposes  alone  is  adapted  to  the  more  extensive  types  of 
farming,  while  the  keeping  of  cattle  primarily  for  beef  purposes, 
but  where  an  income  is  also  obtained  from  milk  products,  is 
better  adapted  to  the  more  intensive  types  of  farming. 

The  averages  would  seem  to  indicate  that  profits  from  rais- 
ing calves  on  cornbelt  farms  are  very  small.  However,  these 
facts  must  be  taken  into  consideration: 

1.  Good  returns  have  been  obtained  for  a  large  quantity 
of  roughage  which,  had  it  not  been  utilized  by  live  stock,  would 
have  been  waste. 

2.  A  home  market  was  provided  for  saleable  crops. 

3.  On  many  farms  a  large  acreage  suitable  to  pasture  only 
has  been  utilized. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        187 

4.  Profitable  employment  is  provided  for  a  season  of  the 
year  when  labor  otherwise  might  be  idle. 

5.  A  return  is  obtained  for  capital  invested  in  equipment 
which,  in  many  instances,  were  it  not  utilized  by  live  stock, 
would  return  nothing. 

6.  When  the  farmer  merely  breaks  even  he  has  at  least 
made  6  per  cent,  interest  on  the  money  he  has  invested  in  the 
cattle  business. 


PART  TWO. 
SHEEP. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  United  States  ranks  as  one  of  the  principal  mutton- 
producing  and  wool-growing  countries  of  the  world.  The  sheep 
industry  in  America  dates  back  to  early  times.  It  has  exper- 
ienced more  ups  and  downs,  due  to  changing  conditions  and 
varying  prices  than  has  the  cattle  industry  or  the  hog  industry. 
At  the  present  time  the  sheep  business  is  in  a  transitional  stage. 
The  number  and  size  of  flocks  in  most  of  the  western  range 
states  continue  to  decline.  In  the  farming  states  increased 
interest  in  sheep  and  increased  production  are  now  noticeable. 
Lamb  and  wool  production  is  a  profitable  business  at  the  present 
time  and  promises  to  continue  so,  not  only  under  range  conditions 
but  also  in  intensive  farming. 

Lamb  and  wool  production  require  a  smaller  use  of  grain 
feeds  than  is  required  with  other  kinds  of  live-stock  farming. 
A  majority  of  lambs  are  marketed  at  weaning  time  and  without 
having  had  any  feed  other  than  the  milk  of  their  dams  and  a 
slight  amount  of  grazing.  The  lamb  carcass  requires  less  fat 
to  render  it  suitable  for  the  table  than  is  necessary  in  any  other 
class  of  meat.  This  fact  adapts  sheep  raising  to  sections  that 
are  not  adapted  to  the  production  of  grains  but  can  furnish 
good  pasturage  and  forage  crops.  Lambs  born  late  in  the  sea- 
son, lambs  raised  by  ewes  which  are  not  good  milkers,  and  lambs 
raised  under  conditions  which  do  not  produce  a  good  milk  flow 
in  the  ewes  go  into  the  hands  of  feeders  and  consume  consider- 
able grain,  but  their  finish  is  largely  produced  from  hay  and 
other  roughages  of  comparatively  lower  value.  Breeding  ewes 
require  little  grain,  and  good  fleeces  are  produced  without  the 
use  of  concentrated  feeds. 

Sheep  have  been  advocated  on  the  ground  that  no  labor 
or  attention  is  needed.  It  has  been  said  that  they  are  farm 
scavengers,  that  they  will  clear  the  farm  of  weeds.  It  is  true 
that  sheep  will  eat  most  weeds,  and  that  farms  which  have  a 
flock  of  sheep  usually  give  evidence  of  that  fact  in  cleaner  fence 

189 


190         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

rows  and  corners  and  a  tidier  appearance  generally.  It  is 
also  true  that  sheep  raising  requires  comparatively  little  labor. 
The  labor  cost  per  dollar's  worth  of  wool  or  lambs  is  lower  than 
in  any  other  farm-animal  product.  It  should  be  emphatically 
stated,  however,  that  sheep  will  not  do  well  unless  they  are 
given  constant  attention  and  the  care  necessary  to  maintain 
thrift,  yet  the  amount  of  work  required  is  by  no  means  heavy 
except  at  lambing  and  shearing  time.  One  competent  man  can 
care  for  from  300  to  500  ewes  during  winter. 

Sheep  raising,  properly  managed,  is  profitable  on  the  corn- 
belt  farm,  while  the  New  England  states,  and  large  areas  of  cut- 
over  timber  lands  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota  are 
suitable  for  sheep  as  soon  as  provision  is  made  for  the  produc- 
tion of  winter  feed.  Many  millions  of  acres  in  this  country 
not  now  in  farms  and  which  are  largely  unfit  for  the  plow  and 
not  suitable  for  grazing  by  other  animals,  will  eventually  return 
a  revenue  in  lambs  and  wool.  The  sheep's  ability  to  prosper 
on  grass  and  roughage,  with  little  grain,  gives  it  first  call  under 
these  conditions. 

The  advantages  of  sheep,  as  compared  to  other  live  stock 
on  the  farm,  have  been  most  ably  presented  by  the  late  Prof. 
John  A.  Craig.*  He  calls  attention  to  the  following: 

1.  Compared   with   cattle,   sheep  produce  more  liberally 
in  proportion  to  what  they  consume.     They  consume  more  feed 
in  proportion  to  their  weight,  and  a  larger  proportion  of  what 
is  eaten  goes  into  increase.    However,  sheep  are  not  so  well 
fitted  as  cattle  to  utilize  large  quantities  of  coarse  roughage. 

2.  The  form  in  which  sheep  manure  is  dropped  and  the 
way  it  is  tramped  into  the  soil  insure  a  smaller  waste  than  is 
possible  under  any  other  system  of  stock  farming.     The  sheep's 
habit  of  lying  upon  the  highest  spot  of  the  field  or  pasture  leaves 
the  larger  part  of  the  droppings  at  the  place  where  they  are 
most  needed. 

3.  Sheep  farming  utilizes  what  would  be  otherwise  waste 
land. 

4.  They  convert  into  mutton  and   wool  much  material 
that  cannot  be  utilized  by  other  animals.     This  is  particularly 
true  of  grain  lost  in  stubble.    Volunteer  growth  or  aftermath 
too  scanty  for  other  stock  is  just  suited  to  the  grazing  habits 
of  sheep. 


Sheep  Farming  in  North  America,  pp.  3-8. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         191 

5.  Sheep  are  the  best  weed  destroyers.    Of  the  numerous 
plants  regarded  as  weeds,  cattle  and  horses  eat  about  50  per 
cent.,  while  sheep  eat  over  90  per  cent,  of  them. 

6.  The  income  from  wool  and  that  from  the  lambs  and 
mutton  come  in  in  different  parts  of  the  year,  and  it  seldom 
happens  that  both  products  sell  at  bottom  prices  the  same  year. 

7.  The  wool  clip  is  easily  stored  with  practically  no  waste 
or  deterioration  if  it  is  desirable  to  hold  for  a  higher  price. 

8.  The  returns  come  quickly.     Lambs  may  be  marketed 
eight  months  after  the  ewes  are  bred. 

9.  The  ewe's  fleece  usually  pays  for  her  keep.    This  puts 
the  fat  lamb  on  the  market  at  low  cost  of  production. 

10.  With  good  management,  the  increase  in  the  flock  may 
be  safely  counted  at  one  hundred  per  cent. 

Sheep  breeders  in  the  various  countries  have  developed 
two  distinct  kinds  of  sheep — mutton  sheep  and  wool  sheep, 
the  latter  being  commonly  called  fine- wool  sheep.  Mutton 
sheep  naturally  divide  into  two  groups  known  as  (1)  long-  of 
coarse- wool  sheep,  and  (2)  medium-  or  middle- wool  sheep. 

Fine- wool  sheep  bear  wool  that  is  1J^  to  4  inches  long  after 
twelve  months'  growth,  medium-wool  fleeces  vary  in  length  of 
fiber  from  2  to  5  inches,  and  the  long-wool  fiber  measures  5  to 
12  inches.  The  fiber  of  the  fine- wool  fleece  is  very  fine  in  dia- 
meter and  has  a  large  number  of  waves  or  crimps  to  the  inch, 
usually  from  16  to  22.  The  long- wool  fiber  is  coarse  and  lashy, 
being  rather  straight  and  hairy  in  appearance.  The  fiber  of 
the  medium-wool  fleece  occupies  a  position  between  the  fine- 
and  long-wool  fibers,  but  with  fewer  crimps  per  inch  than  the 
fiber  of  fine- wool  sheep. 

The  three  groups  are  separated  by  other  marked  differences 
besides  length  and  fineness  of  wool.  Fine- wool  sheep  are  usually 
of  small  or  medium  size,  and  have  a  rather  narrow  form,  long 
neck,  uneven  top  line,  white  face,  more  or  less  wrinkled  skin, 
a  compact  fleece  often  dark  on  the  exterior,  poor  mutton  quali- 
ties, and  active  dispositions.  Medium- wool  sheep  are  medium 
to  large  in  size,  have  a  wide,  compact,  blocky,  meat-producing 
form,  straight  top  line,  usually  have  brown  faces,  a  smooth  skin, 
a  compact  fleece  that  is  light  colored  on  the  exterior,  thick  flesh, 
excellent  mutton  qualities,  and  active  dispositions.  Long- wool 
sheep  are  large,  with  blocky  bodies,  straight  lines,  rather  up- 
standing, white  face,  smooth  skin,  shaggy  light-colored  fleeces 


192         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

hanging  in  long  locks  or  curls,  thick  but  somewhat  coarse  flesh, 
lay  on  much  fat,  and  are  more  sluggish  and  indolent  in  their 
habits. 

The  breeds  of  long-wool  sheep  are  the  Lincoln,  Cotswold,  and 
Leicester.  The  medium-wool  breeds  are  the  Southdown,  Shrop- 
shire, Oxford  Down,  Hampshire  Down,  Suffolk,  Dorset  Horn, 
Cheviot,  and  Tunis.  The  breeds  of  fine-  wool  sheep  are  the 
American  Merino,  Delaine  Merino,  and  Rambouillet.  All  of 
these  breeds  except  the  Merinos  and  the  Tunis  originated  in 
Great  Britain.  The  American  Merino  and  Delaine  Merino  were 
developed  in  the  United  States,  the  Rambouillet  in  France, 
and  the  Tunis  in  the  province  of  Tunis  in  Northern  Africa. 

Although  variations  in  fleece,  size,  form,  and  other  points 
permit  the  division  of  all  sheep  into  three  groups,  there  are  at 
basis  only  two  types  of  sheep  —  mutton  type,  and  fine-wool  type. 
The  former  includes  both  the  long-  and  medium-  wool  groups. 
The  breeds  of  sheep  are  therefore  classified  according  to  type  as 
follows  : 

[Lincoln 

Long-wool   breeds      j  Cotswold 
[Leicester 


MUTTON  TYPE 

Oxford    Down 


Medium-wool  breeds 


Hampshire  Down 
Suffolk 
Dorset  Horn 
Cheviot 
.Tunis 

f  [American  Merino 

FINE-  WOOL  TYPE     j  Fine-wool  breeds        j  Delaine    Merino 
(  [  Rambouillet 

The  mutton-type  sheep  is  chiefly  valued  on  account  of  its 
ability  to  make  good  mutton  economically,  although  the  wool- 
producing  ability  of  the  mutton-type  sheep  constitutes  an  im- 
portant part  of  its  value  to  the  farmer.  Some  of  the  best  mutton- 
producing  breeds  have  failed  to  gain  much  popularity  mainly 
because  of  their  deficiency  as  wool  producers.  It  is  not  expected 
that  one  type  of  sheep  will  excel  in  both  mutton  and  wool  pro- 
duction, any  more  than  one  type  of  cattle  is  expected  to  excel 
in  both  beef  and  milk  production,  yet  it  is  important  that  the 
mutton-type  sheep  grow  a  fleece  of  good  density,  length,  weight, 
and  quality. 

The  fine-  wool  type  is  mainly  a  wool  proposition.  The 
American  Merino  is  of  no  more  value  for  mutton  than  are  dairy 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        193 

cattle  for  beef.  The  Delaine  Merino  and  Rambouillet  have 
better  mutton  qualities,  though  not  equaling  the  mutton  breeds 
in  this  respect,  and  this  largely  explains  their  greater  popularity 
as  compared  to  the  American  Merino. 

The  American  farmer,  and  likewise  the  rangeman,  has 
declared  that  the  most  profitable  sheep  to  grow  in  this  country 
is,  as  a  rule,  a  combined  wool-and-mutton  type.  Among  the 
mutton  breeds,  and  also  among  the  fine-wool  breeds,  those 
which  yield  the  most  and  best  of  both  mutton  and  wool  rank 
highest  in  popularity,  while  those  breeds  which  are  more  highly 
specialized  so  as  to  be  superior  in  one  line  of  production  and 
very  inferior  in  the  other  are  not  so  popular.  The  popularity 
of  a  breed  depends  also  upon  other  factors  such  as  constitutional 
vigor,  prolificacy,  quietness  of  disposition,  feeding  qualities, 
grazing  qualities,  ease  of  shearing,  and  early  maturity,  but  first 
and  fundamentally  the  breed  must  produce  both  a  good  carcass 
and  a  good  fleece  if  it  is  to  be  popular  with  the  farmer.  Every 
breed  has  its  place,  however,  and  to  eliminate  all  except  two  or 
three  breeds  from  American  farms  and  ranches  would  be  poor 
policy.  Some  of  the  less  popular  breeds  are  highly  valued  for 
producing  rams  to  use  in  cross-breeding  or  grading-up  to  produce 
the  desired  type.  Other  less  popular  breeds  have  special  fea- 
tures which  give  them  the  preference  under  certain  special  con- 
ditions of  climate,  food  supply,  or  method  of  management. 

Definition  of  Sheep  Terms. 

Ram  or  buck. — Breeding  male,  any  age. 

Ewe. — The  female,  any  age. 

Lamb. — Any  sheep  under  twelve  months  of  age. 

Wether. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  when  a  young  lamb. 
The  best  age  to  castrate  lambs  is  from  7  to  10  days  old  at  the 
same  time  they  are  docked. 

Stag. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  when  mature  or  so  far 
advanced  toward  maturity  that  masculinity  is  plainly  evident 
in  head,  neck,  and  forequarters.  This  constitutes  coarseness 
in  a  market  animal. 

Shearling. — A  yearling. 

Two-shear. — A  two-year-old. 

Two-tooth. — A  yearling. 

Four-tooth. — A  two-year-old. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
MUTTON  TYPE. 

Although  the  breeds  of  sheep  classed  as  mutton  breeds 
may  be  grouped  into  two  distinct  classes — long-wooled  and 
middle-wooled — and  although  the  breeds  within  each  class 
differ  considerably  in  color  markings,  fleece,  and  appearance, 
nevertheless  all  of  them  belong  to  the  mutton  type.  The  follow- 
ing description  applies  particularly  to  sheep  or  lambs  fattened 
for  the  market. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  mutton-type  sheep  is  almost 
identical  with  the  beef  type  of  cattle.  The  mutton  sheep 
should  be  markedly  short  legged,  broad,  deep,  and  symmetrical. 
The  top  line  and  underline  should  be  straight  and  parallel,  and 
the  top  should  be  broad  and  level  from  end  to  end.  The  side 
lines  should  be  straight,  and  the  middle  wide  and  deep,  yet  neat 
and  trim.  Leggy  and  rangy  conformations  are  as  objectionable 
in  mutton  sheep  as  in  beef  cattle.  There  should  be  pronounced 
blockiness  of  conformation,  combined  with  neatness,  fullness, 
and  great  smoothness  of  outline. 

The  head  should  be  short  and  broad,  the  mouth  of  ample 
width,  the  nostrils  large,  the  face  short,  the  eyes  prominent  and 
clear,  the  forehead  broad,  and  the  ears  rather  fine,  short,  neatly 
attached,  and  well  carried.  The  mutton  type  does  not  have 
horns  as  a  rule,  the  Dorset  breed  being  the  only  exception.  The 
head  should  have  a  clean-cut  appearance,  indicative  of  quality 
and  good  breeding. 

The  neck  should  be  short  and  plump,  arched,  trim  at  the 
throat,  and  should  join  the  shoulders  full  and  smooth. 

The  shoulders  should  be  compact,  smooth,  and  nicely 
covered  over  with  flesh,  making  the  forequarters  very  even  and 
smooth.  The  tops  of  the  shoulders  should  come  fairly  well 
together  and  be  rounded  over  with  flesh. 

The  breast  ought  to  be  prominent,  broad,  and  filled  out 
plump  with  flesh.  A  wide  breast  is  an  evidence  of  strong  con- 
stitution, and  plumpness  of  this  part  is  one  of  the  indications 
of  proper  finish  and  fatness  in  the  market  sheep. 

The  chest  should  be  very  wide  and  deep,  and  have  a  full 
heart-girth.  There  should  be  considerable  distance  between 

194 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


195 


the  front  legs,  and  also  between  the  shoulders,  and  no  depres- 
sion of  the  side  should  exist  just  back  of  the  shoulder.  The 
front  flanks  should  carry  down  deep  and  be  well  filled  out. 

The  front  legs  should  be  short  and  straight,  the  shanks 
fine,  and  the  joints  not  too  large.  The  knees  show  some  ten- 
dency to  come  together,  but  this  should  not  be  marked.  At- 
tention should  be  given  to  the  pasterns  which  should  carry  up 
strong,  and  to  the  toes  which  should  be  well  developed,  strong, 
and  point  directly  forward. 

The  back  furnishes  one  of  the  valuable  cuts  of  the  carcass. 
It  should  be  very  wide,  short,  and  straight,  and  should  be  thickly, 
firmly,  and  evenly  fleshed.  When  the  hand  is  pressed  down 
upon  the  back  it  should  exhibit  no  dip  or  weakness,  but  carry 


Fig.  53.     Points  of  the  Sheep. 


1.  Mouth 

2.  Nostril 

3.  Face 

4.  Eye 

5.  Forehead 

6.  Ear 

7.  Neck 


8.  Shoulder 

9.  Breast 

10.  Foreleg. 

11.  Fore  flank 

12.  Top  of  shoulders 

13.  Back 

14.  Ribs 


15.  Loin 

16.  Hip 

17.  Rump 

18.  Thigh 

19.  Hind  leg 

20.  Pastern 


18  and  24.  Leg  of  mutton 


ZZ 


21.  Dew  claw 

22.  Foot 

23.  Dock 

24.  Twist 

25.  Hind  flank 

26.  Belly 


up  level  and  strong.  In  thin  sheep  the  backbone  is  marked  by 
a  sharp  ridge,  in  well-fattened  animals  the  back  is  smooth,  the 
backbone  being  covered,  while  in  very  fat  animals  the  flesh 
may  be  thickened  on  either  side  of  the  middle  line  to  such  an 
extent  that  a  groove  is  found  down  the  middle  of  the  back  in- 
stead of  a  ridge. 

The  ribs  must  have  a  strong  arch  to  give  width  to  the  back, 
and  they  should  carry  down  deep  to  afford  a  large  chest  and 


196         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

good  digestive  capacity.  They  should  be  placed  close  together 
along  the  side,  the  last  pair  coming  close  to  the  hips.  The  cover- 
ing of  flesh  on  the  ribs  should  be  thick,  even,  and  firm.  The 
side  should  be  straight  and  even,  the  belly  should  be  straight 
and  trim,  and  the  hind  flanks  should  be  well  let  down. 

The  loin  yields  the  highest  priced  cut  of  the  carcass.  Like 
the  back,  it  should  be  very  wide,  ^straight,  strong,  and  covered 
evenly  with  thick,  firm  flesh.  The  backbone  should  be  covered. 
Sheep  may  be  well  covered  over  the  back  and  poorly  covered 
over  the  loin,  therefore  careful  handling  all  along  the  top  is 
necessary  in  order  to  judge  of  the  fleshing. 

The  hips  should  not  be  prominent;  they  should  be  well  laid 
in  and  smoothly  covered  over  with  flesh. 

The  rump  ought  to  be  long,  level,  and  wide,  the  top  line 
carrying  out  straight  to  the  end  of  the  body.  One  of  the  most 
common  faults  of  mutton  sheep  is  a  poorly  shaped  hindquarter, 
the  rump  frequently  rounding  off  or  drooping  on  top,  and  the 
sides  cutting  in  to  give  a  peaked  conformation.  Squareness 
and  fullness  should  characterize  the  hindquarter.  The  covering 
of  flesh  should  be  abundant,  yet  smooth  and  free  from  softness 
or  bunches  of  gobby  fat. 

The  thighs  and  twist,  often  called  the  leg  of  mutton,  should 
be  broad  and  plump  as  viewed  from  the  rear,  and  the  fleshing 
should  carry  well  down  toward  the  hocks,  as  in  beef  cattle.  The 
leg  of  mutton,  loin,  and  back  constitute  the  valuable  parts  of 
the  carcass,  and  they  must  carry  a  high  degree  of  fleshing.  Wide 
variations  in  the  development  of  thigh  and  twist  willbe  found, 
although  a  maximum  development  is  always  demanded. 

The  hocks  and  hind  legs  should  be  strong  and  placed  well 
apart.  When  the  hocks  are  close  together,  the  thigh  and  twist 
usually  lack  a  full  development.  Crooked,  weak  hocks,  either 
badly  sickled  or  bowed,  are  rather  common  and  are  very  un- 
desirable. The  legs  should  be  short  and  straight,  and  show 
refinement  of  bone  and  joints.  The  hind  pasterns  are  also 
given  attention  in  judging,  for  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon 
to  find  them  broken  down  and  weak  so  as  to  impair  the  useful- 
ness of  the  animal  to  a  marked  degree.  They  should  carry  up 
strong,  so  as  to  bring  the  weight  full  on  the  toes. 

The  skin  should  be  of  a  bright  pink  color  and  free  from 
dark-colored  spots.  The  pink  color  is  an  indication  of  health 
and  thrift,  while  a  white  or  bluish  color  shows  an  unthrifty 
condition.  Some  breeds  excel  in  this  respect,  and  others  char- 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


197 


acteristically  show  a  rather  dark  color  due  to  the  presence  of 
pigment  in  the  skin,  in  which  case  the  dark  color  is  not  necessarily 
an  evidence  of  unthriftiness.  The  dark-faced  breeds  often  have 
a  pigmented  skin  over  the  body,  and  with  this  fault  is  often 
associated  the  fault  of  having  black  fibers  in  the  fleece. 

The  quality  of  the  mutton-type  sheep  is  shown  by  the  fine- 
ness of  the  head  and  bone,  fineness  of  the  wool,  and  fineness  and 
softness  of  the  hair  on  the  face  and  legs.  Quality  is  also  shown 
by  the  smoothness  of  the  animal,  both  in  frame  and  in  fleshing. 
Coarse  shoulders,  an  angular  build,  and  uneven  flesh  show  lack 


39HHHHMI 


Fig.  54.     Correct  Type  in  the  Fat  Wether. 

Grade  Shropshire,  Grand  Champion  at  the  1913  International.  Bred 
and  exhibited  by  J.  &  D.  J.  Campbell,  WoodVille,  Ont.,  Can.  Neat  in  form, 
excellent  in  quality,  and  thickly  and  firmly  fleshed.  His  fatness,  trim  middle, 
and  good  quality  insure  a  high  dressing  percentage.  This  sheep  belongs  to 
the  medium-wool  class. 

of  quality  in  a  mutton  sheep.  These  are  important  features 
in  either  breeding  or  fat  sheep.  Quality  and  good  breeding  are 
usually  associated.  Well-bred  animals  respond  best  when  fed 
and  fattened  for  the  market.  The  butcher  likes  quality  because 
it  insures  high  quality  of  meat,  and  indicates  little  waste  when 
the  sheep  is  killed  and  dressed.  A  sheep  of  good  quality  yields 
an  attractive  carcass  with  smooth,  even  outlines. 


198        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  condition,  or  fatness,  of  a  sheep  may  be  determined 
by  an  examination  of  six  points,  these  being  the  spinal  covering, 
the  neck,  the  breast,  the  fore  flank,  the  dock,  and  the  purse. 
The  first  of  these  is  by  far  the  most  important,  as  it  insures  a 
covering  where  it  is  most  valuable,  namely  on  the  high-priced 
cuts.  The  covering  over  the  back  and  loin  should  be  such  that 
the  top  is  smooth  aud  the  backbone  not  easily  felt.  The  neck 
and  breast  of  a  well-finished  sheep  are  plump,  the  fore  flank  is 
well  filled,  the  dock  is  found  thick  when  grasped  in  the  fingers, 
and  the  purse  is  well  filled  with  fat.  Sheep  that  have  been 
over-fed  often  have  bunches  of  soft  fat  at  the  end  of  the  rump, 
ajid  a  blubbery  mass  of  fat  at  the  fore  flank.  Sheep  that  have 
much  loose  fat  at  the  fore  flank  are  referred  to  as  "slipped,"  it 
being  commonly,  but  erroneously,  supposed  that  this  condition 
is  due  to  a  very  heavy  formation  of  fat  along  the  back  which 
becomes  excessive  and  slips  down  the  ribs  to  the  fore  flank. 
The  butcher  sharply  discriminates  against  such  an  excessively 
fat  condition,  and  the  breeder  has  found  that  slipped  ewes  are 
frequently  barren.  The  market  wants  a  thick,  firm  covering. 
Softness  indicates  a  "wasty"  carcass.  Lambs  very  seldom 
become  too  fat,  but  yearlings  and  older  sheep  may  be  easily  fed 
until  they  become  soft  and  overdone. 

The  style  which  some  mutton  sheep  possess  has  an  im- 
portance similar  to  style  in  beef  cattle.  Furthermore,  feeders 
testify  that  the  lamb  or  wether  with  stylish  appearance  and 
sprightly  gait  is  usually  vigorous  and  a  good  feeder,  style  being 
to  some  extent  an  evidence  of  constitutional  vigor  and  thrift. 

The  fleece  of  the  mutton-type  sheep  is  of  secondary  im- 
portance, yet  constitutes  an  important  item  of  value.  The 
value  of  the  fleece  depends  upon  its  length,  weight,  quality,  and 
uniformity.  Weight  of  fleece  depends  upon  covering,  density, 
length  of  staple,  and  the  amount  of  oil,  or  grease,  called  "yolk." 
The  quality  of  fleece  refers  in  a  strict  sense  only  to  fineness  of 
fiber,  but  in  a  general  way  may  also  include  softness,  sound- 
ness, luster,  color,  cleanness,  purity,  and  freeness.  These  var- 
ious factors  of  weight  and  quality  will  now  be  discussed. 

The  covering  of  wool  has  reference  to  the  completeness 
of  covering  over  all  parts  of  the  body.  Some  animals  are  very 
devoid  of  wool  on  the  belly  and  around  the  flanks.  The  breeds 
differ  widely  in  the  extent  to  which  the  poll,  ears,  face,  and  legs 
are  covered  with  wool,  such  features  forming  a  prominent  part 
of  some  breed  types.  The  tendency  in  recent  years,  especially 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        199 

with  some  breeds,  has  been  to  secure  a  more  complete  covering 
of  wool,  and  thus  produce  a  fleece  of  somewhat  more  weight. 
In  all  breeds,  the  under  parts  of  the  body,  including  the  scrotum 
of  the  ram,  should  be  well  wooled. 

A  dense  fleece  is  one  that  is  compact,  or  has  a  large  num- 
ber of  fibers  growing  on  a  square  inch  of  skin.  As  much  density 
is  desired  as  is  possible  to  attain. 

The  length  of  fiber  varies  greatly  among  the  mutton  breeds, 
so  that  it  is  difficult  to  fix  requirements  for  length  of  fleece  for 


Fig.  55.     Long- Wool  Sheep. 

Lincoln  ram,  Champion  at  the  Iowa  State  Fair. 
Arnold,  Galesville,  Wis. 


Owned  by  Mr.  A.  W. 


the  mutton  type  in  general.  However,  a  length  of  less  than 
3  inches  for  a  year's  growth  should  subject  a  mutton-type  animal 
to  criticism,  and  if  it  is  less  than  2^  inches  the  wool  sells  at  a 
lower  price  per  pound  on  the  wool  market,  as  it  is  then  not 
adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  worsted  cloth.  As  a  rule,  the 
longest  fleeces  are  the  coarsest  and  most  lacking  in  density; 
maximums  of  fineness,  length,  and  density  cannot  be  secured  in 


200        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

one  animal.  The  medium- wool  breeds  vary  in  length  of  staple 
from  2  to  5  inches,  while  the  long-wool  breeds  vary  from  5  to 
12  inches. 

The  yolk  is  a  variable  feature  and  a  highly  important  one. 
It  is  secreted  by  glands  in  the  skin,  and  passes  out  over  the 
fibers,  giving  them  an  oily  coating  that  is  valuable  because  it 
makes  the  wool  soft,  protects  and  preserves  the  fibers,  and,  by 
causing  the  fibers  to  lie  even  and  regular,  insures  against  mat- 
ting, or  "cotting,"  of  the  fleece.  A  plentiful  supply  of  yolk  also 
tends  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  dust,  chaff,  and  other  foreign 
material  into  the  fleece.  Incidentally,  the  yolk  adds  weight 
to  the  wool,  although  an  excessive  amount  of  oil  that  merely 
adds  weight  to  the  fleece  is  not  desirable.  The  yolk  should  be 
in  a  fluid  condition  and  should  be  uniformly  distributed  through- 
out the  fleece  from  skin  to  tip  of  fiber.  It  should  not  be  so 
abundant  as  to  collect  in  drops  in  the  fleece,  nor  should  any 
flakes  of  dried  yolk  be  in  evidence. 

The  fineness  of  fiber,  from  the  earliest  days  of  wool  grow- 
ing, has  been  esteemed  one  of  the  most  important  requirements 
of  wool.  It  varies  a  great  deal  among  the  breeds  of  mutton 
sheep,  and  also  among  the  individuals  within  a  breed.  It  is 
not  expected  that  the  mutton  type  will  produce  a  fiber  with 
the  high  degree  of  fineness  shown  by  the  Merinos,  yet  as  much 
fineness  is  wanted  as  may  be  had  without  sacrifice  of  weight  or 
quantity  of  fleece.  The  crimp,  or  waved  condition,  of  wool 
furnishes  an  easy  and  accurate  measure  of  fineness.  All  wool 
is  more  or  less  crimped,  and  it  is  a  fact  that  the  finest  wools  are 
finely  crimped,  that  is,  have  a  large  number  of  crimps  per  inch, 
while  the  coarsest  wools  are  almost  devoid  of  crimp,  being  lashy 
or  broadly  waved.  The  crimp  of  the  medium- wool  fleece  should 
be  fine,  pronounced,  and  uniform  from  skin  to  tip  of  fiber.  A 
.single  fleece  yields  several  sorts  of  wool,  differing  considerably 
in  fineness.  The  finest  wool  grows  on  the  belly,  shoulders,  and 
back;  that  next  in  fineness,  on  the  neck,  breast,  and  along  the 
sides,  while  the  coarsest  wool  is  found  on  the  thighs  and  lower 
parts  of  the  legs. 

Wool  that  has  softness,  yet  is  firm  and  elastic,  is  far  more 
valuable  than  that  which  is  dry,  stiff,  and  harsh.  On  the  other 
hand,  mushy  wool  having  a  soft,  lifeless  feel  with  no  recoil  when 
handled  is  very  often  lacking  in  strength.  Softness  depends 
upon  fineness  of  fiber  and  amount  of  yolk.  Ill  health,  exposure 
to  rough  weather,  or  lack  of  feed  results  in  loss  of  softness. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        201 

The  soundness  of  wool  refers  to  its  freedom  from  weak 
spots.  Sickness,  a  sudden  shock  from  a  blizzard,  lack  of  feed, 
a  rapid  change  from  green  to  dry  feed,  or  vice  versa,  and  over- 
feeding often  cause  the  secretion  of  wool  to  be  lessened  for  a 
time,  thus  producing  tender  wool.  Under  the  microscope  the 
fibers  are  found  to  be  narrow  in  those  parts  produced  under 
adverse  conditions.  Yarn  made  from  such  wool  will  be  lacking 
in  strength.  Sickness  will  often  cause  a  distinct  break  in  the 
fiber  throughout  the  fleece.  (See  Fig.  87.) 

Wool  is  said  to  have  luster  when  the  fibers  glisten  as  though 
thinly  varnished.  This  feature  is  especially  prized  in  long- 
wooled  sheep.  A  luster  wool  takes  a  dye  more  readily  than  does 
a  dull,  or  lusterless,  wool.  Furthermore,  the  luster  is  plainly 
apparent  in  the  finished  cloth,  improving  its  appearance. 

The  color  of  the  wool  fiber  should  be  a  clear  white.  The 
occurrence  of  brown  or  black  fibers  mixed  in  the  fleece  sub- 
jects the  animal  to  much  criticism.  Such  wools  cannot  be  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  white  goods  or  those  of  light  shades. 
Unless  the  fiber  has  perfect  whiteness,  a  rich,  brilliant  dye  can- 
not be  secured  by  the  manufacturer. 

As  regards  cleanness,  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  fleeces 
are  found,  ranging  from  those  above  criticism,  to  those  that 
are  a  mass  of  burs,  sand,  bits  of  straw,  manure,  and  other  rub- 
bish— the  whole  fleece  being  matted  together  and  constituting 
a  product  of  no  commercial  value.  Cleanness  depends  mostly 
upon  the  conditions  under  which  the  sheep  are  kept,  although 
some  fleeces,  on  account  of  their  oiliness  and  density,  tend  to 
keep  free  from  foreign  material,  while  others,  on  account  of  their 
open,  dry,  fluffy  character,  offer  no  resistance  to  the  entrance 
of  foreign  matter. 

By  purity  of  fleece  is  meant  its  freedom  from  hair,  called 
"kemp,"  and  from  dead  fibers.  With  unfavorable  conditions 
of  keep  and  inferior  breeding  there  is  often  a  reversion  of  the 
fleece  to  the  covering  worn  by  early  sheep;  that  is,  hair  begins 
to  appear  in  place  of  wool.  Dead  fibers  and  kemp  do  not  absorb 
dyes,  hence  they  injure  the  cloths  into  which  they  find  their  way. 

The  fleece  is  said  to  have  freeness  when  the  locks  and  fibers 
are  not  entangled,  but  part  off  readily  from  one  another.  When 
the  fibers  are  tangled,  or  matted  together,  the  fleece  is  said  to 
be  "cotted." 

A  fleece  with  uniformity  is  one  having  sameness  in  char- 
acter throughout.  Although  there  is  a  natural  tendency  for 


202         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

the  wool  on  different  parts  to  vary  in  density,  length,  and  fine- 
ness, the  aim  of  the  breeder  is  to  produce  a  fleece  as  nearly 
uniform  throughout  as  possible. 

Age  from  the  teeth. — The  teeth  are  a  fairly  reliable  indica- 
tion of  the  age  of  a  sheep.  The  lamb  has  eight  temporary 
incisors,  or  milk  teeth,  in  the  lower  jaw.  There  are  no  incisors 
in  the  upper  jaw.  At  14  months  of  age,  the  middle  pair  of  milk 
teeth  is  supplanted  by  a  pair  of  larger,  permanent  incisors.  At 
2  years,  the  second  pair  of  permanent  incisors  appears;  at  3 
years,  there  are  three  pairs;  and  at  4  years,  all  eight  permanent 
incisors  are  in  place.  At  five  years,  the  teeth  show  more  width 
between,  and  at  six,  the  corner  teeth  may  be  broken  out  or  the 
mouth  may  show  signs  of  wear.  Broken-mouthed  sheep  have 
their  usefulness  much  impaired,  and  should  not  be  kept  unless 
for  special  reasons. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
THE    MUTTON    CARCASS    AND    THE    PELT. 

Mutton  and  lamb  supply  a  wealthier  class  of  consumers 
than  beef,  pork,  or  veal.  Lamb  is  ordinarily  considered  some- 
thing of  a  delicacy,  while  beef  and  pork  are  looked  upon  as  staple 
articles  of  food.  For  this  reason,  the  American  meat  industry 
was  not  much  concerned  with  mutton  and  lamb  until  rather 
recent  years,  or  since  the  country  has  become  more  prosperous 
and  wealthy.  The  proper  handling  of  mutton  and  lamb  necessi- 
tates more  careful  and  quick  slaughtering  than  is  required  in 
the  case  of  beef  or  pork,  and  good  refrigeration  facilities  are 
also  very  essential.  The  public  taste  for  mutton  and  lamb 
was  not  created  until  the  development  of  the  refrigerator  car 
nor  until  the  erection  of  large-scale  chill  rooms  was  made  possi- 
ble by  artificial  refrigeration.  The  year  1875  marked  the  advent 
of  these  great  aids  to  the  packing  business.  Mutton  differs  from 
pork  and  beef  in  that  it  is  strictly  a  fresh  meat  product  and 
does  not  lend  itself  to  salting,  pickling,  smoking,  or  drying  as 
do  pork  and  beef.  Hence  mutton  became  a  world  commodity 
only  after  the  development  of  artificial  refrigeration  and  re- 
frigerated transportation.  Still  another  reason  for  the  com- 
paratively recent  demand  for  mutton  and  lamb  is  found  in  the 
fact  that,  up  to  1870,  the  great  majority  of  all  sheep  in  America 
were  either  purebred  or  grade  Merinos.  Good  mutton  became 
plentiful  only  after  the  use  of  mutton  rams  became  general  on 
farms  and  ranges. 

Lamb  is  usually  superior  to  mature  mutton  in  flavor  and 
general  palatability,  and  the  demand  for  lamb  far  exceeds  the 
demand  for  mutton;  the  wholesale  trade  consists  of  two  or  three 
times  as  much  lamb  as  mutton.  During  the  past  fifteen  years 
the  wholesale  trade  in  lamb  and  mutton  has  increased  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  have  doubled  during  that  period;  this  may  be 
partly  due  to  general  prosperity  and  a  larger  housewife's  allow- 
ance, and  partly  to  an  improvement  in  the  quality  of  lamb  and 
mutton  through  better  methods  of  slaughtering  and  handling. 

Slaughtering. — Sheep  purchased  by  packers  are  driven  to 
the  packing  plant  and  allowed  to  rest  a  few  hours,  because  ani- 
mals killed  while  in  an  excited  condition  do  not  bleed  out  thor- 

203 


204         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

oughly.  They  are  then  driven  into  a  small  shackling  pen,  and 
a  shackle  is  placed  around  the  hind  leg.  Two  at  a  time,  the  sheep 
are  raised  by  a  large  revolving  wheel  to  a  point  overhead  where 
the  shackle  automatically  unhooks  from  the  wheel  and  starts 
down  a  gently  inclined  rail.  The  animal  moves  to  the  "sticker," 
who  quickly  dispatches  the  sheep  by  a  single  thrust  of  a  double- 
edged  knife,  one  man  killing  600  to  700  sheep  per  hour.  After 
passing  through  many  hands,  the  carcass  reaches  the  cooler, 
the  dressing  requiring  about  twenty-six  minutes. 

Method  of  dressing. — Prior  to  the  World  War,  a  number  of 
styles  of  dressing  sheep  and  lambs  were  used,  but  during  the 
period  of  the  war,  as  a  conservation  measure,  the  U.  S.  Food 


Fig.  56.     Killing  Sheep  at  Chicago. 

Administration  instructed  all  packers  that  sheep  and  lambs 
must  be  dressed  by  the  plain  or  round  method,  and  without 
caul  or  pluck.  This  method  of  dressing,  which  is  the  most 
economical,  has  been  continued  since  the  war  to  the  present 
time,  and  there  is  no  indication  that  the  other  styles  of  dressing 
will  be  practiced  in  the  future.  Plain-  or  round-dressed  sheep 
and  lambs  have  the  pelt,  head,  and  toes  removed,  and  the  fore 
legs  are  folded  at  the  knees.  They  are  opened  from  the 
cod  or  bag  to  the  breast,  and  are  split  through  the  breastbone. 
A  spread  stick  is  placed  in  the  breast  to  hold  it  open  and  properly 
shape  the  carcass. 

Formerly,  in  dressing  the  lowest  grades  of  mutton  and  most 
lambs,  the  caul  (a  fatty  membrane  investing  the  internal  organs) 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        205 

was  wrapped  about  the  legs  and  laid  over  the  inside  of  the  carcass 
thus  improving  the  appearance,  preventing  drying  out,  and,  in 
some  cases,  furnishing  the  fat  necessary  for  proper  cooking  of 
the  meat.  The  caul  contains  considerable  fat,  and  as  it  was 
usually  discarded  by  the  retailers  of  mutton  and  lamb,  the  Food 
Administration  rightly  designated  this  style  of  dressing  as  waste- 
ful and  caused  it  to  be  discontinued.  Cauls  are  now  sent  to  the 
rendering  tank  for  the  extraction  of  fats  and  oils.  The  pluck 
consists  of  the  heart,  lungs,  liver,  windpipe,  a  portion  of  the 
diaphragm,  or  "skirt,"  and  more  or  less  adhering  fat.  For- 
merly, most  lambs  were  sold  "pluck  in,"  and  sheep  were  usually 
sold  "pluck  out."  The  pluck  is  now  used  principally  in  the 
manufacture  of  different  kinds  of  sausage. 

The  offal. — In  the  plain-  or  round-dressed  style  of  dressing, 
the  sheep  loses  the  following  parts  in  the  order  named: — blood, 
head,  pelt,  internal  organs,  and  toes.  The  pelt  is  the  skin  with 
the  wool  on,  and  it  is  a  valuable  product. 

The  dressing  percentage. — From  what  has  been  said  of 
slaughtering  and  dressing,  it  is  apparent  that  in  order  to  dress 
a  high  percentage  of  carcass,  sheep  must  be  (1)  light  in  pelt, 
(2)  fat,  and  (3)  neat  in  form,  or  free  from  paunchiness.  The 
dressing  percentage  of  sheep  is  not  so  important  as  that  of  cattle, 
because  the  waste  has  a  higher  value  than  the  waste  from  cattle, 
on  account  of  the  high  value  of  the  pelt.  If  a  sheep  is  fat  in 
condition,  and  neat  and  trim  in  form,  it  will  tend  to  dress  high, 
but  the  pelt  should  be  as  heavy  as  is  consistent  with  the  pro- 
duction of  mutton  of  high  quality.  As  a  general  rule,  the  choicest 
sheep  and  lambs,  from  a  carcass  standpoint,  do  not  wear  heavy 
pelts,  although  a  heavy  pelt  in  itself  is  valuable,  as  will  be  shown 
later,  and  between  two  sheep  otherwise  equal,  the  one  with  the 
heavier  pelt  will  bring  the  higher  price  on  the  market,  even  though 
its  heavier  pelt  lessens  its  dressing  percentage  to  some  extent. 
Sheep  and  lambs  range  in  dressing  percentage  from  40  to  65 
per  cent.,  but  ordinarily  dress  from  45  to  55  per  cent.  Sheep 
and  lambs  are  combined  in  the  census  statements  of  meat  animals 
slaughtered  in  the  United  States.  Their  average  live  weight 
for  the  four  years  1899,  1904,  1909,  and  1914  was  84,  86,  81,  and 
79  pounds.  Their  average  dressed  weight  was  43,  43,  41,  and 
39  pounds.  Their  average  dressing  percentage  was  51.2,  50, 
50.6,  and  49.36  per  cent,  respectively.  Mutton  carcasses  usually 
weigh  from  45  to  85  pounds,  while  most  lamb  carcasses  weigh 
from  35  to  50  pounds. 


206 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  wholesale  cuts. — The  following  diagram  represents  a 
side  view  of  a  carcass  of  lamb  or  mutton,  the  dotted  lines  in- 
dicating the  location  of  the  wholesale  cuts. 

The  leg  and  loin  together  are  called  the  saddle,  and  the 
combined  short  rack,  chuck,  and  brisket  are  called  the  rack. 
The  saddle  and  rack  are  almost  equal  in  weight.  One  rib  is 
left  on  the  loin.  The  short  rack  includes  from  9  to  11  pairs  of 


Fig.  57.     Wholesale  Cuts  of  Mutton. 

1,  Chuck;  2,  short  rack;  3,  breast;  4,  loin;  5,  leg;  1  and  3,  stew;  1,  2,  and 
3,  rack;  4  and  5,  saddle. 

ribs,  depending  on  how  the  carcass  is  divided  between  short 
rack  and  chuck.  The  chuck  and  brisket  are  usually  sold  to- 
gether as  one  cut,  called  the  stew.  In  average  45-pound  car- 
casses of  lamb  and  mutton,  round  dressed,  and  pluck  out,  the 
weights  of  the  various  wholesale  cuts,  their  wholesale  prices  per 
pound,  and  total  values  are  as  given  in  the  following  table: 


Wholesale   cuts 

Wts. 
in 
Ibs. 

Wts. 
in 
per  cent. 

Price  per  pound 

Total  value  of  cut 

Lamb 

Mutton 

Lamb 

Mutton 

Leg  

13.7 
9.6 
6.4 
15.3 

30.5 
21.3 
14.2 
34.0 

Cents 
34 

49  }J 
23^ 

Cents 

281A 
36>| 

$4.66 
3.79 
3.17 
3.60 

$3.90 
3.02 
2.34 
2.52 

Loin.  .  . 

Short  rack  (10  ribs)  . 
Stew  

Saddle  .  . 

23.3 
21.7 

51.8 
48.2 

M 

29% 
22^ 

8.45 
6.77 

6.92 
4.86 

Rack  

Totals.. 

45.0 

100.0 

33  £ 

264- 

$15.22 

$11.78 

High-priced  and  low-priced  cuts. — The  average  price  for 
the  entire  lamb  carcass  is  33  %  cents  per  pound,  while  the  mutton 
carcass  averages  26  %  cents  per  pound.  As  in  the  beef  carcass, 
the  back,  loin,  and  hindquarter  yield  high-priced  cuts,  while 
the  breast  and  belly,  constituting  the  chuck  and  brisket  cuts, 
are  low  in  price  because  they  lack  thickness,  the  quantity  of 
flesh  elements  being  relatively  small. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        207 

Carcass  classes  and  grades. — Carcasses  of  sheep  and  lambs 
are  classified  and  graded  as  follows: 

Classes  Sub-classes  Grades 

( Lambs  Choice,  good,  medium,  common,  culls 

LAMB 

[Yearlings        Choice,  good,  medium 

(Wethers          Choice,  good,  medium,  common 
MUTTON    \  Ewes  Choice,  good,  medium,  common,  canners 

[Bucks  Good,  medium,  common 

The  following  wholesale  prices*  indicate  the  comparative 
values  of  the  above  classes: 

Special  Selected  Round-Dressed  Lambs, 

pluck  out 30  to  40  Ibs 34%  cents  per  Ib. 

Good  Lambs,  Round-Dressed,  pluck  out.  .  .30  to  40  Ibs 33%  cents  per  Ib. 

Medium  Lambs,  Round-Dressed,  pluck 

out 30  to  40  Ibs 32%  cents  per  Ib. 

Common  Lambs,  Round-Dressed,  pluck 

out 25  Ibs 32%  cents  per  Ib. 

Yearling  Lambs,  Round-Dressed,  pluck 

out 40  to  45  Ibs 31%  cents  per  Ib. 

Wether  Sheep,  Round-Dressed,  pluck  out.  .  .45  to  55  Ibs 26%  cents  per  Ib. 

Ewe  Sheep,  Round-Dressed,  pluck  out 45  to  60  Ibs 25%  cents  per  Ib. 

Common  Sheep,  Round-Dressed,  pluck  out 18%  cents  per  Ib. 

Qualifications  of  a  good  carcass. — The  value  of  the  carcass 
depends  chiefly  upon  (1)  form,  (2)  quality,  (3)  covering,  (4) 
weight,  and  (5)  maturity.  These  various  factors  will  now  be 
discussed. 

t.  Form. — The  essential  points  of  desired  shape  are  good 
width  in  proportion  to  length,  compactness,  and  smooth,  even 
outlines.  This  implies  a  thick  loin,  broad  back,  well-fleshed 
ribs,  a  full,  thick  middle  from  shoulder  to  leg,  plump,  thick 
legs  filled  down  well,  and  smoothly  covered  shoulders.  The 
most  common  faults  of  form  are  long,  slender  legs,  narrow  backs, 
lack  of  development  over  ribs  and  loin,  and  too  much  paunch, 
or  belly.  Long  necks  in  ewes,  and  heavy  "bucky"  necks,  shoul- 
ders, and  briskets  in  wethers  are  objectionable. 

2.  Covering. — It  is  essential  that  the  carcass  be  smoothly 
and  evenly  covered  with  fat,  because  of  its  influence  on  the 
appearance  of  the  dressed  sheep,  the  quality  of  meat,  and  the 
shrinkage  both  in  storage  and  in  cooking.  Only  in  the  most 
highly  finished  sheep  are  the  legs  and  shanks  completely  cov- 
ered. The  kidney  fat  should  be  well  developed,  but  not  exces- 


Wholesale  price  list  of  a  leading  Chicago  packer,  March,  1919. 


208         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

sive.  A  light  kidney  usually  indicates  lack  of  finish,  while  a 
very  heavy  one  is  evidence  of  overdone  condition  or  uneven 
distribution  of  fat.  The  purse,  udder,  rump,  flanks,  and  brisket 
are  other  points  at  which  the  amount  of  fat  is  plainly  apparent, 
but  it  should  not  be  excessive  on  any  of  these  parts.  The  lowest 
grades  have  practically  no  outside  fat,  the  amount  of  covering 
varying  more  or  less  directly  with  the  grades  of  mutton  from 
common  to  choice.  The  external  and  kidney  fat  should  be  firm, 
brittle,  and  white.  As  with  beef,  the  English  consumer  desires 
fatter  mutton  than  would  suit  the  American  trade. 

3.  Quality. — The  term  "quality"  is  here  used  somewhat 
broadly,  to  include  not  only  refinement  of  bone  and  fineness 
of  texture  of  flesh,  but  also  color  of  lean  and  fat.    The  flesh 
should  be  firm  and  fine  grained,  without  the  stringy,  coarse 
texture  of  aged  or  inferior  mutton.     The  color  of  flesh  varies 
from  light  pink  in  lambs  to  dull  red  in  mature  mutton,  and  is 
less  variable  than  in  beef.     The  fat  should  be  clear  and  white. 
General  quality  is  more  important  in  mutton  and  lamb  than  in 
other  branches  of  the  meat  trade,  on  account  of  the  custom  of 
using  the  carcasses  for  display  purposes  in  retail  markets. 

4.  Weight. — This  is  of  more  importance  in  grading  mut- 
ton than  in  grading  beef,  as  it  is  often  a  strong  indication  as  to 
whether  a  carcass  is  a  lamb,  yearling,  or  mature  sheep.    The 
extreme  ranges  in  weights  of  carcasses  are,  lambs,  15  to  50  pounds; 
yearlings,  40  to  60  pounds;  wethers,  40  to  120  pounds;  bucks, 
45  to  200  pounds;  ewes,  50  to  200  pounds.     The  most  desired 
weights  for  a  lamb  carcass  are  40  to  45  pounds;  for  mutton  car- 
casses, 50-  to  65-pound  weights  are  most  desired.    As  with  beef, 
heavy  carcasses  are  demanded  by  hotels,  restaurants,  and  dining 
cars. 

5.  Maturity. — As  has  been   mentioned,   the  demand  for 
lamb  far  exceeds  the  demand  for  mutton,  and  the  price  of  lamb 
has  been  shown  to  be  considerably  higher.     The  packers'  inter- 
pretation of  the  word   "lamb"  is  broader  than  the  ordinary 
understanding  of  the  term,  for  both  lambs  and  yearlings  yield 
a  "lamb"  carcass.     Mutton  carcasses  are  those  of  wethers  two 
years  old  or  over,  ewes,  bucks,  and  stags.     The  maturity  of  the 
carcass  may  be  easily  determined  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy 
from  the  bones;  in  lambs  the  brisket  is  soft  and  red,  and  the 
ribs  and  shank  bones  are  colored  with  blood  vessels;  in  mature 
sheep  the  bones  are  white  and  hard.     However,    the    break- 
joint  furnishes  the  best  means  of  distinguishing  lambs  and  year- 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        209 

lings  from  mature  sheep.  The  break-joint  or  lamb- joint  is  a 
temporary  cartilage  which  forms  in  the  head  of  the  shank  (shin 
bone)  immediately  above  the  ankle.  In  dressing  lambs,  year- 
ling wethers,  and  some  yearling  ewes,  the  foot  can  be  broken 
off  at  this  cartilage,  giving  the  end  of  the  shank  a  saw-tooth 
shape.  In  lambs  the  broken  surface  is  smooth  and  moist,  and 
in  yearlings  it  is  more  porous  and  dry.  The  shanks  of  mature 
sheep  will  not  "break,"  because  the  cartilage  is  knit  or  ossified, 
and  the  foot  is  taken  off  at  the  ankle  instead,  making  a  "round- 
joint."  Shanks  of  female  or  ewe  sheep  outside  the  lamb  class 
are,  as  a  rule,  too  mature  to  break.  Consequently,  80  to  90  per 
cent,  of  "yearling  lamb"  carcasses  are  wethers,  the  remainder 
being  ewes  and  a  small  proportion  of  bucks  and  stags.  Yearlings 


Fig.  58.     Round-Joint  and  Break-Joints. 

In  dressing  mature  sheep,  the  feet  are  taken  off  at  the  ankle,  leaving  a 
round-joint  on  the  end  of  the  shank  bone.  Immediately  above  the  ankle 
in  immature  stock  is  a  temporary  joint,  called  the  break-joint,  at  which  the 
feet  are  removed.  Thus  the  head  of  the  shank  bone  as  well  as  the  foot  is 
removed,  leaving  the  saw-toothed  break- joint  on  the  end  of  the  shank  bone. 
As  the  animal  matures,  the  break-joint  ossifies  or  knits.  Pincers  are  some- 
times used  to  crush  off  those  which  are  partly  ossified.  This  leaves  an  im- 
perfect break-joint.  The  shank  bones  of  mature  sheep  will  not  break.  At 
the  left  above  is  a  round-joint,  at  the  right  a  true  break-joint,  and  in  the 
center  a  crushed  break- joint  from  a  nearly  mature  sheep. 

substitute  for  genuine  lamb,  and  we  see  that  they  may  easily 
do  this  because  they  possess  the  break- joint. 

Goat  carcasses. — Dressed  goats  are  occasionally  sold  in 
connection  with  mutton  and  lambs,  and  are  frequently  sub- 
stituted for  them,  especially  in  the  retail  markets.  They  are 
similar  to  the  lowest  grades  of  western  sheep  in  form,  quality, 


210        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

and  finish.  Long  shanks,  coarse,  dark  flesh,  long  necks,  and 
thin  caul,  however,  render  them  quite  easily  distinguished 
from  sheep  carcasses. 

The  Value  of  the  Pelt. 

The  market  value  of  a  mutton  animal  rests  not  only  upon 
the  carcass  it  yields,  but  also  upon  the  pelt.  Information  has 
been  given  out  from  various  sources  that  buyers  of  sheep  for 
the  packers  prefer  animals  wearing  light  pelts.  It  has  been 
said  that  the  slaughtering  departments  of  packing  houses  with- 
out exception  dispose  of  sheep  pelts  at  a  fixed  price  per  pelt, 
consigning  them  to  the  wool-pullery  department  of  their  own 
plant,  or  to  some  independent  pullery.  Buyers  have  been  re- 
ported to  prefer  light-wooled  lots  in  order  to  obtain  high  dress- 
ing percentages;  it  has  been  said  that  buyers  have  no  particular 
interest  in  the  welfare  of  their  own  pulleries,  or  in  other  firms 
that  buy  the  pelts  for  pulling.  Farmers  have  been  advised 
that  the  highest  market  price  is  obtained  for  sheep  and  lambs 
that  are  light  in  pelt  and  which  consequently  dress  high. 

Can  it  be  possible  that  the  packer,  with  all  his  genius  for 
the  utilization  of  by-products,  is  overlooking  such  an  important 
item  as  wool?  If  the  shank  bones  of  cattle  may  be  profitably 
converted  into  buttons  and  other  articles,  is  it  not  inconsistent 
and  unbusiness  like  to  discount  well-wooled  lots  of  sheep?  With 
wool  worth  25  to  50  cents  per  pound,  is  it  not  strange  that  the 
buyer  should  refuse  to  bid  higher  on  a  well-wooled  band  of 
sheep  than  upon  a  lot  with  light  fleeces,  other  things  being 
equal,  especially  as  the  fleece  is  secured  at  the  live-weight  price 
of  the  animal,  namely  10  to  20  cents  per  pound?  In  handling 
thousands  of  sheep,  the  wool  reaches  a  considerable  valuation. 
If  light  pelts  are  wanted,  why  do  shorn  sheep  sell  at  a  discount? 

Such  questions  as  these  led  the  writer  to  make  an  investi- 
gation which  included  interviews  with  the  principal  buyers 
at  Chicago,  and  an  inspection  of  a  modern  wool-pulling  estab- 
lishment owned  by  one  of  the  packing  firms.  It  was  found 
that  a  few  buyers  do  give  preference  to  light-pelted  lots,  but 
that  class  of  buyers  is  decidedly  in  the  minority.  Swift,  Ar- 
mour, Wilson,  and  New  York  butchers  have  for  some  time 
realized  the  added  value  of  a  heavy  fleece,  and  this  has  enabled 
them,  in  many  instances,  to  outbid  competing  firms  who  con- 
sider only  the  dressing  percentage  as  an  index  of  the  value  of 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        211 

sheep  for  slaughter.  The  fact  that  New  York  butchers  have 
been  able  to  dispose  of  pelts  profitably  very  largely  explains 
their  survival  in  the  face  of  keen  competition  with  packers. 

The  slaughtering  departments  of  those  packing  houses 
equipped  with  wool  pulleries  are  credited  each  day  with  the 
value  of  the  pelts  sent  from  the  killing  floor.  The  value  per 
pelt  varies,  depending  upon  (1)  size  of  pelt,  (2)  weight  of  fleece, 
(3)  quality  of  fleece,  (4)  cleanness  of  fleece,  (5)  amount  of  grease, 
(6)  color  of  wool,  and  (7)  thickness  of  skin.  On  this  basis  the 
value  per  r  elt  at  the  present  time  (March,  1919)  ranges  as  low 
as  80  c?  ts  for  lambs,  and  as  high  as  $6.50  for  sheep  pelts  in  full 
fleece  depending  mostly  upon  age,  breeding,  and  season  of 
th  year.  The  average  price  of  Chicago  pelts  is  now  about 
$3.90  per  pelt.  This  is  extremely  high,  due  to  the  present 
high  values  of  wool  and  skins.  The  value  of  the  pelt  plays  an 
important  part  in  determining  the  value  of  a  sheep  to  the  packer. 
The  buyer's  appreciation  of  the  value  of  the  pelt  results,  in  most 
instances,  in  a  much  fairer  price  than  would  otherwise  be  paid. 

Packing  houses  and  other  wholesale  butchers  not  equipped 
with  wool  pulleries  have  two  methods  of  disposing  of  the  pelts; 
they  may  either  contract  them  in  advance  at  a  fixed  price  per 
pelt,  or  they  may  allow  them  to  accumulate  and  then  solicit 
bids.  In  the  latter  case,  the  bidders  make  an  examination  and 
the  pelts  sell  on  their  merits.  In  the  former  case,  the  packer  or 
butcher  has  no  incentive  to  pay  a  premium  for  well-wooled  sheep, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  to  his  advantage  to  select  those  with 
light  pelts.  One  prominent  sheep  buyer  on  the  Chicago  market 
designated  the  contract  plan  as  "slipshod,"  and  he  stated  that 
"eventually  it  must  cease  as  competition  becomes  more  keen." 
He  also  said,  "I  instruct  my  men  to  consider  wool  as  well  as 
meat,  and  when  they  make  bids,  you  may  be  sure  they  have 
estimated  the  value  of  the  pelt  as  well  as  the  carcass." 

Pelts  are  most  valuable  in  the  spring  just  before  shearing 
time.  Shorn  sheep  sell  at  a  discount  because  the  wool  cannot 
be  pulled  at  a  profit  until  it  has  a  growth  of  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  or  more.  When  the  staple  measures  less  than  this,  the 
pelts  are  tanned  with  the  wool  on,  and  the  price  received  is  small 
compared  with  pelts  which  can  be  pulled.  The  time  of  shearing 
marks  the  close  of  winter  and  the  opening  of  pasturage,  hence 
shorn  sheep  are  often  gaunt,  and  this  is  another  reason  for  the 
lower  price. 


212        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Pulled  wool  has  the  same  uses  as  ordinary  clipped  wool. 
The  weight  of  wool  from  an  average  pelt  is  4  to  5  pounds.  This 
seems  a  low  figure,  but  the  pelts  are  scrubbed  before  pulling, 
which  takes  out  nearly  all  the  dirt  and  grease,  and  causes  a 
decided  loss  in  weight. 

After  the  wool  is  pulled,  the  skins  are  prepared  for  the 
tannery.  Untanned  sheep  and  lamb  skins  are  worth  from  $5.50 
to  $17.00  per  dozen,  with  an  average  of  $7.25  per  dozen  for  lamb 
skins  and  $8.50  for  sheep  skins.  The  value  depends  upon  the 
size,  quality,  and  thickness.  The  Merino  yields  a  thin,  porous 
skin  which  makes  a  leather  that  scuffs  easily  and  wears  out  very 
quickly.  These  bring  the  lowest  price.  The  best-wearing  and 
highest-priced  sheep  leather  is  made  from  skins  of  the  long- 
wooled  breeds.  Sheep  leather  is  used  for  making  cheap  shoes, 
shoe  linings,  gloves,  bags,  book  bindings,  cheap  saddles,  suit 
cases,  sweat  bands  for  hats,  and  many  other  articles.  Chamois 
skins  are  now  made  entirely  of  sheep  skins.  Goat  skins  are  much 
in  demand  for  furniture  leather  and  are  more  valuable  than 
sheep  skins,  the  best  un tanned  bringing  $21.00  per  dozen.  They 
average  a  little  larger  in  size  than  sheep  skins  and  wear  much 
better. 

By-Products  of  Sheep. 

The  by-products  from  the  slaughter  of  sheep  may  be  classed 
as  edible  and  inedible.  The  edible  by-products  include  the 
tongue,  which  is  used  for  cooking  or  sausage;  the  pluck,  which 
is  usually  ground  up  and  used  in  different  kinds  of  sausage;  and 
the  paunch,  about  one-half  of  the  paunches  being  used  for  "tripe," 
made  by  boiling  and  pickling  the  paunches. 

Because  of  the  high  value  of  the  pelt,  the  inedible  by-pro- 
ducts of  the  sheep  are  more  valuable  than  those  of  the  steer  or 
the  hog,  considering  their  proportion  to  the  carcass.  The  bones, 
stomach,  and  any  trimming  are  tanked,  thus  extracting  fats  and 
oils,  and  the  residue  is  treated  to  make  glue.  The  final  residue 
is  made  into  tankage  and  fertilizer.  The  blood,  dried  and 
ground,  makes  blood  meal  and  fertilizer.  Hard  bones  yield 
bone  charcoal  for  bleaching  purposes,  black  pigment  for  paint, 
shoeblacking,  etc.,  bone  dust  for  fertilizer,  vitrified  bone  for 
making  glass,  cement  for  billiard  balls,  and  knife  handles,  combs, 
buttons,  and  other  articles.  The  intestines,  windpipe,  and 
bladder  are  cleaned  and  made  into  sausage  casings.  Musical 
strings,  clock  cord,  and  surgical  ligature  for  sewing  up  wounds, 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        213 

as  well  as  casings  for  little  sausages,  are  made  exclusively  from 
the  intestines  of  sheep.  A  class  of  oleo  oil  is  made  from  the 
better  grade  of  mutton  tallow,  and  enters  into  the  composition 
of  oleomargarine.  Inedible  greases  are  used  in  soaps.  Some 
valuable  chemicals  used  in  medicine  are  obtained  as  by-products 
from  sheep.  Among  these  are  thyroidin,  used  as  a  cure  for 
cretinism,  and  suprarenalin,  a  powerful  astringent  used  in  cases 
of  severe  bleeding.  More  than  130,000  sheep  are  required  to 
make  a  pound  of  suprarenalin. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
SHEEP  MARKETS  AND  MARKET  CLASSIFICATION. 

The  census  of  1910  estimated  that  14,724,699  sheep  and 
lambs  and  285,553  goats  and  kids  were  slaughtered  for  food  in 
the  United  States  in  1909.  From  reports  of  the  Census  Bureau 
it  is  estimated  that  83  per  cent,  of  the  sheep  and  lambs  marketed 
in  the  United  States  pass  through  the  large  central  markets, 
13  per  cent,  are  sold  for  local  slaughter,  and  only  4  per  cent, 
are  slaughtered  on  farms  and  ranges.  The  corresponding  per- 
centages for  goats  and  kids  are  12,  46,  and  42.  The  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Markets  and  Rural  Organization*  conducted  an  investigation 
in  1915  which  indicated  that  43  per  cent,  of  sheep  and  lambs  are 
marketed  in  the  fall,  13  per  cent,  are  marketed  in  winter,  18  per 
cent,  are  marketed  in  the  spring,  and  26  per  cent,  are  marketed 
in  summer.  Maximum  receipts  occur  in  September  and  October, 
at  which  time  large  numbers  of  western  sheep  and  lambs  arrive 
at  the  markets.  Minimum  receipts  are  usually  registered  in 
May. 

The  fourteen  largest  sheep  markets  and  their  total  receipts 
during  the  year  1918  were  as  follows: 

1.  Chicago.  .                       .  .4,629,736  8.  St.  Paul. .                       .  .630,203 

2.  Omaha 3,385,696          9.  Pittsburg 552,848 

3.  Kansas  City 1,667,463        10.  St.  Louis 536,406 

4.  Denver 1,651,759        11.  Salt  Lake  City 423,664 

5.  Buffalo 903,553        12.  Sioux  City 387,423 

6.  St.  Joseph 827,489         13.  Fort  Worth 334,596 

7.  Pueblo 761,959        14.  Cleveland 287,422 

The  Chicago  sheep  market  is  easily  the  largest  in  the  world. 
The  total  value  of  sheep  and  lambs  received  there  during  1918 
was  $57,273,848.  Their  average  value  per  head  was  $12.37. 
Their  average  live  weight  was  78  pounds.  Their  average  price 
per  cwt.  was  $15.86.  Of  the  4,629,736  sheep  received,  3,424,526 
were  slaughtered  by  Chicago  packers,  and  the  remaining  1,205,210 
were  shipped  out  alive.  Of  the  latter  number,  237,204  were 
shipped  to  other  points  for  slaughter,  and  967,996  were  bought 
for  feeding  purposes  and  sent  to  the  country. 


*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Report  113,  p.  19,  by  Hall,  Simpson,  and  Doty. 

214 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


215 


At  Chicago,  during  1918,  Swift  &  Co.  slaughtered  1,205,835 
sheep;  Armour  &  Co.,  1,078,190;  Morris  &  Co.,  520,531;  and 
Wilson  &  Co.,  517,938.  These  four  companies  slaughtered  97 
per  cent,  of  all  sheep  killed  by  Chicago  packers  in  1918. 

The  commission  charge  for  selling  straight  carloads  of 
sheep  or  goats  at  Chicago  is  20  cents  per  head,  with  a  minimum 
charge  of  $10.00  and  a  maximum  of  $12.00  on  single-deck  cars, 
and  a  minimum  of  $15.00  and  a  maximum  of  $18.00  on  double- 
deck  cars.  On  less  than  40  head  of  sheep  or  goats  shipped  in 
one  car,  the  commission  charge  is  25  cents  per  head.  The  charge 
for  yardage  is  7  cents  per  head. 

Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Sheep. 

The  market  classes  of  sheep  are  three  in  number,  their 
names  indicating  the  use  to  which  the  sheep  in  each  class  are 
put.  These  are  (1)  mutton  sheep,  (2)  feeder  sheep,  and  (3) 
breeding  sheep.  Each  of  these  classes  is  divided  into  sub-classes, 
and  these  are  again  divided  into  grades.  W.  C.  Coffey  of  the 
Illinois  Station*  made  a  detailed  study  of  the  market  classifica- 
tion of  sheep  at  the  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  and  outlines 
the  market  classes,  sub-classes,  and  grades  as  follows: 


Classes 


MUTTON  SHEEP 

(Native  and  Western  Sheep) 


Sub-classes 
Lambs .  . 


Yearlings 

Wethers 

Ewes .  . 


Bucks  and  Stags. 
Lambs . . 


FEEDER  SHEEP 

(Western  Sheep) 


BREEDING  SHEEP 

(Native  and  Western  Sheep) 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Yearlings . . 
Wethers . . 


Ewes 


fEwes 

[Bucks 

[Hot-House  Lambs 
I  Throw  Outs 
I  Dead  Sheep 
I  Goats 


Grades 

.  Prime,    choice,     good, 

medium,  common  or 

culls. 

.Prime,  choice,  good. 
.  Prime,    choice,    good, 

common, 
.  Prime,    choice,     good, 

medium,  common  or 

culls. 
.Choice,  good,  common. 

.  Fancy  selected,  choice, 
good,  medium,  com- 
mon. 

.Choice,  good,  common. 

.  Choice,  good,  medium, 
common. 

.  Choice,  good,  medium, 
common. 

Fancy  selected,  choice, 

good,  common. 
.(Not  graded.) 


*  111.  Bui.  129. 


216         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  division  of  the  sheep  in  each  class  into  sub-classes  is 
determined  either  by  age  or  sex.  The  division  of  the  sheep  in 
each  sub-class  into  grades  depends  upon  their  comparative  merits 
and  faults  and  is  more  arbitrary  than  the  division  into  classes 
and  sub-classes. 

Native  and  western  sheep. — Before  taking  up  a  description 
of  the  various  classes,  sub-classes,  and  grades,  it  is  necessary 
to  explain  the  differences  between  native  sheep  and  western 
sheep.  Broadly  speaking,  native  sheep  are  those  kept  in  small 
flocks  on  the  farms  of  the  central,  southern,  and  eastern  states, 
while  western  sheep  are  those  coming  to  market  from  large  bands 
on  the  ranges  of  the  western  states.  There  is  also  a  difference 
in  the  breeding;  western  sheep  have  a  large  proportion  of  Merino 
blood,  whereas  natives  have  mostly  a  mutton  ancestry.  Western 


Fig.  59.     Prime  Native  Lambs. 

Bred  and  fed  by  the  Iowa  State  College. 

sheep  are  white  faced  and  usually  show  more  or  less  wrinkles, 
particularly  below  the  neck;  native  sheep  are  mostly  brown 
faced  and  are  usually  free  from  wrinkles.  Range  methods  of 
feeding  and  management,  as  compared  with  farm  methods, 
result  in  further  differences  in  appearance  and  make  easy  the 
distinction  between  natives  and  westerns.  The  mutton  and 
breeding  classes  include  both  native  and  western  sheep,  but  the 
feeder  class  is  composed  of  western  sheep  only.  Although  thin 
natives  are  bought  up  in  the  country  and  successfully  fed,  those 
that  reach  the  market  in  low  condition  do  not  sell  as  feeders 
because  they  are  usually  infested  with  internal  parasites,  thus 
making  it  difficult  and  often  impossible  to  fatten  them. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        217 

The  stomach  worm  of  sheep,  Haemonchus  contortus,  is 
one  of  the  most  serious  pests  affecting  live  stock.  Sheep  of  all 
ages  are  subject  to  it,  but  infested  lambs  show  much  more  serious 
effects  than  do  mature  animals.  The  lambs  become  infested 
from  the  older  sheep  through  the  medium  of  the  pasture.  The 
symptoms  are  anemia,  loss  of  flesh,  general  weakness,  dullness, 
thirst,  loss  of  appetite,  and  diarrhea.  When  the  fourth  stomach 
of  an  infested  animal  is  opened  and  the  contents  allowed  to 
settle,  the  parasites  may  be  seen  actively  wriggling  about.  They 
are  }/%  to  1J4  inches  long  and  about  as  thick  as  a  pin.  The 
worms  in  the  stomach  produce  eggs  which  pass  out  in  the  drop- 
pings onto  the  pasture,  and,  if  the  season  is  spring  or  summer, 
a  tiny  worm,  nearly  one-thirtieth  of  an  inch  long,  hatches  out 
and  crawls  up  a  blade  of  grass.  Uninfested  sheep  or  lambs  soon 
become  infested  on  such  pastures.  No  treatment  has  been  found 
that  will  rid  a  flock  of  this  pest,  although  dosing  with  a  solution 
of  copper  sulphate  or  with  gasoline*  is  fairly  satisfactory  and 
will  hold  stomach  worms  in  check  so  that  they  will  not  injure 
the  flock.  The  best  means  of  combating  the  parasite  is  by 
preventative  measures.  Rotation  of  pastures  is  imperative. 
Permanent  pastures  for  farm  flocks  are  almost  certain  to  cause 
trouble.  Rape  should  be  sown  as  early  in  the  season  as  possible. 
It  is  easily  grown,  has  a  high  value  as  feed  for  sheep  and  lambs, 
and  helps  prevent  stomach  worms,  especially  when  temporary 
fences  are  used  and  the  flock  is  changed  to  fresh  ground  frequently. 

The  western  rangeman  with  great  areas  of  pasturage  is 
able  to  keep  his  flocks  on  fresh  ground,  while  on  farms  this  is 

*  It  is  advisable  to  treat  infested  sheep  when  they  go  into  winter  quarters 
and  again  in  the  spring  after  they  have  been  on  pasture  for  a  short  time,  and 
at  any  other  time  during  the  summer  when  they  show  symptoms  of  attacks. 

Only  clear  blue  crystals  of  copper  sulphate  should  be  used,  dissolving 
1  ounce  in  2  quarts  of  water.  Care  must  be  used  in  preparing  the  solution, 
for  too  strong  a  solution  will  kill  the  sheep  and  too  weak  a  solution  will  not  be 
effective.  The  sheep  should  be  kept  off  feed  for  18  to  24  hours  before  treat- 
ing. On  the  day  they  are  treated  they  should  receive  no  water  either  before 
or  after  treating.  The  size  of  the  dose  is  as  follows: 

For  a  lamb  3  months  old  give  ^  of  a  fluid  ounce  (about  20  c.  c.). 

For  a  lamb  6  months  old  give  lj^  fluid  ounces  (about  40  c.  c.). 

For  a  yearling  give  2  fluid  ounces  (about  60  c.  c.). 

For  sheep  2  years  old  give  3  fluid  ounces  (about  90  c.  c.). 

(From    Ohio   Experiment   Station's    Monthly   Bulletin, 
June,  1918,  p.  174.) 

The  gasoline  treatment  consists  in  giving  a  tablespoonful  each  of  gasoline 
and  raw  linseed  oil  in  about  6  ounces  of  cow's  milk  for  a  lamb,  and  half  as 
much  again  for  a  sheep,  giving  three  doses,  one  dose  a  day  for  three  days,  on 
an  empty  stomach. 


218 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


possible  but,  unfortunately,  is  not  often  practiced.  Hence, 
western  sheep  have  a  great  advantage  over  native  sheep  for 
feeding  purposes. 

At  the  large  markets  and  in  live-stock  reports,  western 
sheep  are  frequently  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  state  in 
which  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  produced  or  fed,  such  as 
"Montanas,"  "Colorados,"  "Mexicans,"  "Idahos,"  etc.  The 
word  "fed"  when  prefixed  to  the  name  of  a  class  indicates  that 
the  sheep  were  fattened  on  grain  rather  than  on  grass  alone. 


Fig.  60.     Prime  Western  Lambs. 

Mutton  Sheep. 

All  sheep  and  lambs  sent  to  market,  no  matter  what  the 
condition,  age,  or  weight,  are  classed  as  mutton  sheep  if  they 
are  suitable  for  immediate  slaughter.  They  are  either  slaugh- 
tered at  Chicago  packing  houses  or  reshipped  to  Philadelphia, 
New  York,  Baltimore,  Washington,  Buffalo,  and  other  cities. 
Only  the  better  grades  are  shipped.  The  sub-classes  of  mutton 
sheep  are  lambs,  yearlings,  wethers,  ewes,  and  bucks  and  stags. 

Lambs. — Of  the  various  sub-classes  of  mutton  sheep,  the 
lamb  sub-class  is  by  far  the  most  important,  both  to  the  pro- 
ducer and  to  the  consumer.  The  producer  finds  the  market- 
ing of  lambs  more  profitable  than  the  marketing  of  older  animals, 
while  the  consumer  has  developed  a  strong  and  increasing  pref- 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


219 


erence  for  lamb.  Seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  ovine  receipts 
at  Chicago  are  lambs,  and  the  percentage  is  increasing.  Never- 
theless, mature  mutton  sheep  will  never  disappear  from  the 
market,  because  surplus  and  spent  breeding  stock  will  always 
be  available  for  slaughter.  At  from  12  to  14  months  of  age, 
lambs  pass  into  the  yearling  or  ewe  sub-classes.  No  definite 
age  limit  can  be  drawn  about  the  lamb  sub-class,  for  the  dis- 
tinction is  based  upon  the  degree  of  maturity  exhibited  by  the 
young  animal.  For  this  reason  native  lambs  pass  out  of  the 
sub-class  at  a  younger  age  than  western  lambs,  because  they  are 
better  fed  and  are  usually  free  from  Merino  blood.  The  western 
lamb's  slower  approach  to  maturity,  due  to  its  breeding  and 
feeding,  is  something  of  an  advantage,  enabling  it  longer  to 


>r 


Fig.  61.     Choice  Western  Lambs. 

enjoy  the  advantage  in  price  that  lambs  have  over  older  animals. 
A  feeder  may  buy  light  western  lambs  in  the  late  fall  and  feed 
them  until  the  following  May,  at  which  time  they  will  still  be 
classed  as  lambs;  while  native  lambs  of  the  same  age  and  similarly 
managed  would  be  classed  as  sheep  upon  their  return  to  market. 

This  makes  clear  why  for  several  weeks  in  the  year  it  is 
necessary  to  make  two  separate  quotations  on  lambs,  one  of 
which  is  for  those  known  as  "spring  lambs,"  referring  to  those 
born  in  the  year  the  quotations  are  made,  as  distinguished  from 
those  born  the  year  previous..  These  separate  quotations  first 
appear  about  May  20,  and  continue  until  July  1.  After  July  1, 
all  animals  born  in  the  spring  of  the  previous  year  are  known 
as  yearlings  or  ewes.  The  first  run  of  spring  lambs  to  western 
markets  is  from  Tennessee  where  pastures  are  green  very  early 


220        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

in  the  spring  and  where  lambing  is  somewhat  earlier  than  farther 
north.  The  run  starts  about  the  middle  of  May,  and  continues 
regularly  after  June  1.  These  Tennessee  lambs  are  followed 
by  Kentucky  lambs  during  July,  and  the  central  states  and 
western  range  lambs  from  July  15  to  November  1.  Then  come 
grain-fed  spring  lambs  from  about  November  1  to  June  1.  These 
are  mostly  range-bred  stock  fed  in  Colorado  or  in  the  cornbelt. 
Colorado  uses  peas  and  alfalfa  extensively  in  lamb  feeding. 
In  Idaho,  Montana,  and  other  western  states,  lambs  are  frequent- 
ly kept  over  and  finished  during  fall  and  winter  on  hay. 

The  grades  of  fat  lambs  are  prime,  choice,  good,  medium, 
and  common  or  culls.  The  grade  of  a  lamb  depends  upon  its 
form,  quality,  condition,  and  weight. 


Fig.  62.     Good  Lambs. 

Prime  lambs. — Only  the  best  lambs,  or  those  that  are 
superior  in  form,  quality,  condition,  and  weight,  are  graded  as 
prime.  They  are  used  to  supply  the  demands  of  the  fancy  city 
market,  hotel,  and  restaurant  trade. 

1.  Form. — The  buyer  demands  the  form  that  shows  the 
most  development  of  loin,  back,  and  leg  of  mutton,  these  being 
the  regions  of  high-priced  cuts.     The  lamb  should  be  deep, 
broad,  short  of  leg,  and  free  from  paunchiness.     Fullness  and 
smoothness  of  outline  are  important  as  indications  of  thickness 
and  evenness  in  fleshing.    A  rough,  ungainly  lamb  dresses  out 
low  and  yields  an  unattractive  carcass.     Undocked  lambs  are 
discriminated  against  on  the  market. 

2.  Quality. — The  indications  of  quality  are  a   medium- 
sized,  clean-cut  head;  fine  ears;  fine  bone;  and  smooth,  well- 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        221 

rounded  outlines.  These  features  insure  fineness  in  texture  of 
flesh,  increase  the  dressing  percentage,  and  add  to  the  attrac- 
tive appearance  of  the  carcass;  hence,  quality  is  an  important 
factor  in  determining  price. 

3.  Fatness  and  fleshing. — The  reasons  why  a  lamb  should 
be  fat  are:  (1)  Other  things  being  equal,  a  fat  lamb  will  dress 
a  higher  percentage  of  carcass  than  a  half -fat  or  thin  lamb; 
(2)  the  fat  adds  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  carcass,  making  it 
more  inviting  to  the  purchaser;  (3)  the  fat  carcass  shrinks  less 
in  weight  in  cooling  out  in  the  refrigerator,  and  the  same  is  true 
in  cooking;  (4)  some  external  fat  and  fat  deposited  through  the 
lean  meat  improves  the  juiciness  and  flavor  of  the  flesh.  The 
fleshing  of  the  lamb  should  be  deep,  even,  and  firm,  yet  "springy." 


Fig.  63.     Common  or  Cull  Lambs. 

Lambs  are  seldom  made  too  fat,  but  in  the  finishing  of  older 
animals  this  is  easily  possible.  The  proper  degree  of  fatness  is 
indicated  by  a  thick  dock,  a  mellow  purse,  thickness  and  smooth- 
ness over  the  back  and  ribs,  fullness  at  the  neck  and  flanks,  and 
a  plump,  well-filled  breast. 

4.  Weight. — The  most  desirable  weight  for  the  prime 
lamb  is  80  pounds.  When  spring  lambs  first  appear  on  the 
market  they  weigh  little  more  than  60  pounds,  but  if  they  have 
quality  and  finish  they  easily  command  top  prices.  During 
summer  months,  consumers  of  mutton  desire  small  cuts,  and 
this  gives  rise  to  a  strong  demand  for  lambs  weighing  65  to  70 
pounds.  Native  lambs  showing  the  best  form,  quality,  and 
condition,  and  weighing  100  pounds  occasionally  sell  as  prime 
lambs,  although  this  is  exceptional.  As  a  rule,  weight  is  of  less 


222 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


importance  than  quality  or  condition,  but  in  making  selections 
from  the  lighter  carcasses  the  average  consumer  feels  more  fully 
assured  he  is  getting  lamb  and  not  mutton. 

Foreign  material  and  moisture  in  the  wool  add  to  the  weight. 
Should  lambs  be  very  wet,  buyers  may  withhold  bids  until  they 
are  more  nearly  dry,  and  if  bids  are  made  on  animals  having 
wet  fleeces,  the  buyer  trys  to  allow  for  the  extra  weight  in  the 
price  he  offers.  Foreign  material,  such  as  mud,  sand,  or  manure, 
may  be  lodged  in  the  fleece,  and  such  offerings  always  command 
a  lower  price.  It  pays  to  market  all  sheep  in  clean  condition. 

Choice  lambs. — This  grade  includes  most  of  the  better  lamb 
offerings  upon  the  Chicago  market.  Lambs  cannot  be  very 


Fig.  64.     Prime  Native  Yearlings. 

Bred  and  fed  by  Iowa  State  College. 

deficient  in  form,  quality,  fatness,  or  weight,  and  grade  as  choice. 
Deficiency  in  quality  or  in  weight  frequently  accounts  for  failure 
to  grade  as  prime,  but  lack  of  condition  is  the  most  common 
cause. 

Good  lambs. — Marked  deficiency  in  form,  quality,  condi- 
tion, or  weight,  or  a  slight  deficiency  in  each,  puts  the  lamb 
into  the  good  grade.  Lack  of  quality  and  lack  of  condition  are 
the  most  frequent  causes  of  failure  to  grade  higher  than  good. 

Medium  lambs. — Here  the  form  is  frequently  faulty,  and 
the  condition  and  quality  fall  far  below  the  standard.  Long, 
narrow,  rough  lambs  much  lacking  in  flesh  grade  here.  They 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        223 

are  often  paunchy.  Western  lambs  answering  to  this  descrip- 
tion classify  as  feeders  unless  they  are  very  coarse,  hence  this 
grade  is  mostly  filled  by  native  lambs. 

Common  or  cull  lambs. — Coarse,  ill-shaped,  thin  lambs 
grade  as  common  or  culls.  With  one  exception  they  are  very 
light  in  weight,  ranging  from  30  to  50  pounds.  The  exception 
is  found  in  the  case  of  coarse,  "bucky"  lambs,  the  result  of  too 
late  castration.  The  development  of  sex  explains  their  coarse- 
ness and  heavy  weight,  as  they  are  heavier  than  the  bulk  of 
common  lambs,  sometimes  weighing  as  much  as  100  pounds. 
Common  lambs  are  mostly  natives.  Their  lack  of  flesh  is  often 
due  to  infestation  by  internal  parasites. 


Fig.  65.     Prime  Western  Yearlings. 

Many  uncastrated  lambs  still  come  to  market,  but  prin- 
cipally from  the  small  farms — never  from  large  farms  or  ranches 
where  sheep  raising  is  recognized  as  a  business.  They  are  dis- 
criminated against  rather  severely  at  times  by  buyers.  Ram 
lambs  are  so  restless  that  they  do  not  acquire  the  finish  of  wether 
lambs.  This  is  especially  true  after  they  have  reached  the  age 
of  3  or  4  months.  Tests  have  shown  that  wether  lambs  make 
11  per  cent,  more  gains  in  weight  than  do  ram  lambs  under 
similar  conditions,  and  the  difference  in  fatness  is  much  more 
marked.  Lambs  should  be  docked  and  castrated  when  from 
7  to  10  days  old. 


224 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Yearlings. — This  sub-class  includes  yearling  wethers  only. 
Yearling  ewes  are  excluded.  Yearlings  are  used  as  a  substitute 
for  lambs  in  the  meat  trade.  The  ability  to  substitute  for  lamb 
depends  upon  weight,  quality,  condition,  and  immaturity;  for 
the  nearer  the  yearling  approaches  the  prime  lamb  in  these 
respects,  the  better  he  fulfills  his  function.  An  index  greatly 
depended  upon  for  identifying  the  carcass  of  a  young  sheep, 
or  lamb,  is  the  "break- joint,"  which  was  described  in  Chapter 
XVI.  Most  yearling  wethers  will  "break,"  whereas  most  year- 
ling ewes  will  not.  This  explains  the  inability  of  the  yearling 
ewe  to  substitute  for  lamb,  and  hence  the  term  "yearling"  on 


Fig.  66.     Good  Yearlings. 

the  sheep  market  includes  wethers  only.  Yearlings  are  commonly 
referred  to  as  "lights"  and  "heavies,"  according  to  weights. 
Each  year  there  are  a  number  of  lambs  that  for  one  or  more 
reasons  should  not  be  marketed  as  lambs,  and  hence  the  pro- 
duction and  marketing  of  yearlings  is  economically  justifiable. 
The  grades  are  prime,  choice,  and  good. 

Prime  yearlings. — To  grade  as  prime,  yearlings  must  be 
highly  developed  in  form,  quality,  and  condition,  and  of  a  light, 
handy  weight,  ranging  from  70  to  90  pounds.  Correct  form 
in  the  prime  yearling  necessitates  symmetry,  compactness, 
roundness,  and  smoothness,  with  no  suggestion  of  uneven  lines 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         225 

or  prominent  parts.  In  quality,  the  requirements  are  fine,  clean- 
cut  features,  fine  bone,  and  a  smooth  form.  Sharp  discrimina- 
tion is  made  by  buyers  against  those  not  showing  a  high  finish, 
this  being  the  first  essential  in  prime  yearlings. 

Choice  yearlings. — Yearlings  of  the  choice  grade  outnum- 
ber those  grading  as  prime.  A  weight  of  more  than  90  pounds 
is  usually  alone  sufficient  to  exclude  a  yearling  from  the  prime 
grade.  Any  noticeable  departure  from  correct  form,  quality,  or 
condition  is  sufficient  to  place  a  yearling  in  the  choice  grade.  The 
difference  between  prime  and  choice  yearlings  is  small. 

Good  yearlings. — When  the  weight  is  110  pounds  or  more, 
or  when  there  is  marked  lack  of  those  qualities  sought  in  the 


Fig.  67.     Common  Wethers. 

yearling  sub-class,  the  animals  grade  as  good,  this  being  the 
lowest  grade  of  yearlings.  Excepting  those  that  are  badly  off 
in  form  or  quality,  or  both,  the  good  grade  of  mutton  yearlings 
merges  with  the  yearling  feeder  sub-class. 

Wethers. — This  sub-class  is  composed  of  mature,  castrated 
males.  Comparatively  few  native  wethers  appear  upon  the 
market,  this  sub-class  being  chiefly  a  western  product.  It  is 
claimed  that  there  are  fewer  wethers  reaching  the  market  each 
year,  and,  as  the  demand  for  dressed  lamb  seems  destined  to 
increase,  the  proportionate  number  of  wethers  will  undoubtedly 
continue  to  decrease,  especially  when  transportation  lines  are 


226         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

further  extended  through  the  range  districts.  At  present,  the 
rangeman  has  a  place  for  wethers  if  his  location  is  such  that  the 
shipment  of  animals  is  difficult  and  expensive,  if  he  has  very 
cheap  grazing  lands  and  can  produce  his  animals  at  very  low 
cost,  or  if  he  has  too  few  breeding  sheep  to  run  his  ranch  at  its 
full  capacity.  As  a  mutton  product,  wethers  are  used  in  hotel, 
restaurant,  dining  car,  and  steamship  trade,  or  in  any  place 
where  the  heavier  cuts  may  be  advantageously  used.  The  grades 
of  wethers  are  prime,  choice,  good,  and  common. 

Ewes. — Yearling  ewes,  ewes  discarded  as  breeders,  and 
surplus  breeding  ewes  compose  this  sub-class.  Wide  differ- 
ences are  therefore  noticeable  in  age,  condition,  and  weight  of 
offerings.  As  a  rule,  ewes  dress  out  lower  and  yield  propor- 
tionately less  lean  meat  than  wethers,  and  hence  bring  a  lower 
price.  The  higher  grades  of  ewes  are  utilized  for  hotel  and 
restaurant  trade,  while  the  lower  grades  supply  the  demand  for 
cheap  mutton  in  cities,  mining  camps,  and  other  places.  The 
grades  of  ewes  are  prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  and  common 
or  culls. 

Bucks  and  stags. — The  supply  of  these  is  limited  and  hence 
they  are  not  graded.  This  sub-class  is  of  no  special  importance 
to  the  producer  of  mutton. 

Feeder  Sheep. 

The  chief  distinction  between  mutton  sheep  and  feeder 
sheep  is  the  degree  of  fatness.  Other  distinctions  are  notice- 
able, however,  for  a  study  of  the  two  classes  discloses  the  fact 
that  thinness  of  flesh  is  not  alone  sufficient  to  gain  ready  ad- 
mission to  the  feeder  class.  The  animal  should  also  be  free 
from  extreme  coarseness,  and  should  not  be  much  lacking  in 
vitality  because  of  disease  or  old  age.  The  supply  of  feeder 
sheep  is  greatest  during  September,  October,  and  November, 
at  which  time  rangemen  are  thinning  their  flocks  in  preparation 
for  winter.  An  investigation  conducted  by  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture*  in  1915  indicated  that  64  per  cent,  of  feeder 
sheep  and  lambs  are  purchased  in  the  fall,  26  per  cent,  in  the 
spring,  9  per  cent,  in  the  summer,  and  1  per  cent,  in  the  winter. 
Furthermore,  47  per  cent,  of  feeder  sheep  and  lambs  purchased 
are  bought  locally  in  the  district  in  which  they  are  fed  or  grazed, 
39  per  cent,  at  centralized  markets,  and  14  per  cent,  in  the  coun- 


*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Report  113,  p.  17. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


227 


try,  other  than  locally.  As  previously  explained,  practically 
all  sheep  sold  from  the  markets  as  feeders  are  those  grown  on 
western  ranges.  The  sub-classes  of  feeder  sheep  are  lambs, 
yearlings,  wethers,  and  ewes. 

Feeder  lambs. — Illinois  Bulletin  129  has  the  following  to 
say  regarding  feeder  lambs:  "Feeder  lambs  are  those  thin  in 
flesh  left  after  sorting  out  those  in  a  band  in  suitable  condition 
for  the  mutton  trade.  A  great  percentage  of  the  feeder  lambs 
reaching  the  markets  fall  into  that  class  because  of  certain  in- 
fluences under  which  they  have  been  placed.  It  may  be  that 
they  have  had  an  unequal  chance  with  those  in  highest  con- 
dition in  the  band  on  account  of  not  being  so  well  nourished  by 


Fig.  68.     Fancy  Selected  Feeder  Lambs. 

their  dams;  they  may  have  been  born  too  late  to  reach  that 
degree  of  condition,  finish,  and  weight  demanded  by  the  packer; 
or,  they  may  have  been  held  too  long  at  the  shipping  place  on 
the  range  or  on  the  road  by  poor  train  service  without  the  nec- 
essary amount  of  feed,  so  that  the  deterioration  in  condition 
placed  what  would  have  been  mutton  lambs  in  the  feeder  class." 
Feeder  lambs  are  graded  fancy  selected,  choice,  good,  medium, 
and  common  or  inferior. 

Fancy  selected  feeder  lambs. — This  grade  includes  only  a 
relatively  small  number  of  lambs,  because  they  must  meet  not 
only  the  requirements  for  choice  feeder  lambs,  but  must  also  show 
very  good  breeding,  great  uniformity  in  appearance  and  mark- 
ings, and  a  degree  of  quality  that  justifies  no  adverse  criticism. 


228 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


They  show  slightly  more  fatness  than  the  general  run  of  feeder 
lambs,  and  are  heavier,  weighing  from  65  to  70  pounds.  Such 
lambs  are  quickly  finished  into  prime  lambs. 

Choice  feeder  lambs. — This  grade  of  feeder  lambs  will  de- 
velop into  choice  or  prime  mutton  lambs,  provided  they  are 
properly  managed.  The  buyer  looks  for  evidences  of  ability 
to  make  economical  gains  and  to  reach  a  high  state  of  finish. 
Such  evidences  are  manifested  in  the  form,  quality,  constitution, 
condition,  and  weight. 

1.  Form. — The  form  should  be  low  set,  broad,  deep,  com- 
pact, and  free  from  paunchiness.  Such  a  conformation  is  es- 
pecially important  as  an  indication  of  quick  maturity  and  is 
the  form  the  butcher  prizes  most  in  a  carcass. 


Fig.  69.     Good  Feeder  Lambs. 

2.  Quality. — The  head  should  be  medium  sized  and  clean- 
cut,  the  bone  fine,  and  the  skin  free  from  folds  or  wrinkles. 

3.  Constitution  and  thrift. — A  wide,  deep  chest  and  roomy 
middle  are  essential  to  constitutional  vigor.     Buyers  desire  a 
thrifty,  active  lamb  and  hence  look  with  disfavor  on  those  that 
are  lame  or  inactive. 

4.  Condition. — It  is  not  expected  that  feeder  lambs  will 
be  fat,  yet  they  should  be  fairly  full  in  their  outlines,  and  there 
should  be  no  suggestion  of  emaciation,  as  this  means  a  weakened, 
inactive  lamb. 

5.  Weight. — Feeder  lambs   that  grade   as   choice   weigh 
from  55  to  62  pounds.    Those  below  this  range  of  weight  may 
be  regarded  as  too  young  or  too  much  retarded  in  development 
to  respond  to  feeding  as  a  choice  lamb  should.     In  a  normal 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


229 


feeding  period  of  from  90  to  120  days,  choice  lambs  are  expected 
to  finish  into  the  weights  most  desirable  on  the  mutton  market; 
hence,  the  initial  weight  cannot  be  much  under  55  pounds. 

Good  feeder  lambs. — These  are  often  somewhat  leggy  and 
coarse,  yet  capable  of  making  satisfactory  gains.  They  average 
a  little  light  in  weight,  and  are  not  so  high  in  condition  as  choice 
feeder  lambs,  hence  require  a  longer  feeding  period  to  finish  them. 
Buyers  of  this  grade  feed  them  all  winter  and  shear  before  mar- 
keting. This  grade  especially  appeals  to  buyers  who  take  out 
lambs  a  few  weeks  before  shearing  time  to  shear  and  feed  for  a 
short  period. 

Medium  feeder  lambs. — This  grade  is  deficient  in  breeding, 
form,  quality,  and  weight.  They  are  long,  leggy,  and  angular 


Fig.  70.     Common  Feeder  Lambs. 

in  form,  and  their  wrinkled  skins  are  evidence  of  much  Merino 
blood. 

Common  or  inferior  feeder  lambs. — Little,  light,  late-born, 
weak  lambs  grade  as  common  or  inferior.  The  market  calls 
them  "bums,"  "culls,"  "pewees,"  and  "peanuts."  They  weigh 
from  25  to  45  pounds  and  require  five  or  six  months  feeding  and 
careful  management  to  make  the  feeding  profitable.  Extremely 
coarse  lambs  also  grade  as  common. 

Yearling  feeders. — This  sub-class  is  composed  only  of  year- 
ling wethers,  and,  as  the  mutton  yearling  should  be  able  to  sub- 
stitute for  lamb,  quality  and  weight  are  of  great  importance  in 
grading  yearling  feeders.  They  are  not  a  prominent  feature 
in  the  feeder  trade,  as  but  few  appear  on  the  market.  The 
grades  are  choice,  good,  and  common. 


230         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Feeder  wethers. — The  supply  is  very  small.  The  grades 
are  choice,  good,  medium,  and  common. 

Feeder  ewes. — Most  ewes  suitable  for  feeding  bring  a 
higher  price  when  sold  for  breeding  purposes,  hence  the  supply 
of  feeder  ewes  is  small.  They  exhibit  considerable  variation  in 
condition,  quality,  and  thrift,  and  are  graded  choice,  good, 
medium,  and  common. 

Breeding    Sheep. 

Both  native  and  western  ewes  are  included  in  this  class, 
but  breeding  bucks  are  exclusively  natives.  Bulletin  129  of  the 
Illinois  Station  has  the  following  to  say  concerning  this  class: 
"The  ewes  most  sought  after  are  two-,  three-,  and  four-year-old 
dark-faced  natives  in  ordinary  field  condition.  Dark-faced 
ewes  sell  better  than  those  that  are  otherwise  their  equals,  be- 
cause their  lambs,  being  dark  faced,  sell  better  than  light-faced 
lambs  on  the  eastern  markets.  Western  ewes  are  very  popular 
for  breeding  purposes  in  certain  localities,  as  Ohio,  Michigan, 
and  Western  New  York,  and  many  engaged  in  the  trade  think 
they  should  be  preferred  over  natives,  because  they  are  more 
hardy  and  comparatively  free  from  internal  parasites.  Many 
of  the  ewes  offered  for  breeding  purposes  are  yearlings,  but 
they  are  not  as  desirable  as  two-  or  three-year-old  ewes  because 
they  are  immature  and  likely  to  be  unsatisfactory  at  their  first 
lambing.  The  native  yearling  is  heavier  and  more  nearly  mature 
than  the  western  yearling,  and  she  meets  with  a  correspondingly 
better  sale."  Breeding  ewes  are  graded  fancy  selected,  choice, 
good,  and  common. 

Fancy  selected  breeding  ewes.— This  grade  of  ewes  is  com- 
posed of  the  few  high  grades  of  the  middle-wooled  breeds,  usually 
grade  Shropshires,  which  reach  the  market.  They  must  be  not 
only  thrifty  and  sound,  but  uniform  in  quality,  form,  fleece, 
and  style. 

Choice  breeding  ewes. — Most  of  the  desirable  breeding 
ewes  found  on  the  market  belong  to  the  choice  grade.  Eligi- 
bility to  this  grade  is  based  upon  form,  constitution,  age,  sound- 
ness, breeding,  quality,  and  condition.  Below,  the  writer  again 
quotes  from  Illinois  Bulletin  129. 

1.  Form. — "The  smooth,  low-set,  symmetrical  ewe  is  pre- 
ferred over  the  angular,  upstanding  ewe  with  uneven  top  and 
lower  lines.  *  *  *  Choice  ewes,  unlike  fancy  selected,  do 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         231 

not  necessarily  have  to  be  of  stylish  carriage.  From  the  stand- 
point of  breed  type,  they  are  often  plain  about  the  head,  with 
rather  long  necks,  and  long  in  the  coupling  to  the  extent  that 
they  could  hardly  be  regarded  as  compact." 

2.  Constitution. — "Since  the  breeding  ewe  is  to  produce 
and  nourish  lambs,  it  is  essential  that  she  be  deep  and  wide  in 
the  chest,  and  that  she  have  a  roomy  middle,  all  of  which  indicates 
that  she  has  a  strong  constitution  and  well-developed  assimila- 
tive powers." 

3.  Age. — "The  most  desirable  ages  are  two,  three,  and 
four  years,  and  more  particularly  two  and  three  years.    When 
breeding  ewes  go  to  the  country  it  is  the  thought  of  the  pur- 
chaser that  they  are  to  produce,  on  the  average,  three  crops 
of  lambs  before  they  are  sent  back  to  the  market  as  old  mutton 
ewes,  hence,  if  the  age  is  any  greater  than  four  years,  the  ability 
to  produce  profitably  for  three  years  is  very  doubtful." 

4.  Soundness. — "Soundness  refers  to  the  condition  of  the 
mouth  and  udder.    A  broken  mouth,  which  means  missing  teeth 
or  teeth  worn  down  short,  indicates  advanced  age,  and  although 
ewes  may  otherwise  look  desirable  for  breeding  purposes,  they 
cannot  grade  as  choice  if  the  teeth  are  not  intact.     It  is  necessary 
that  the  choice  breeding  ewe  have  a  sound  udder,  and  it  is  pro- 
nounced sound  when  it  is  soft  and  pliable  to  the  touch,  without 
abnormal  development  on  either  side.    Any  ewe  not  having  a 
sound  udder  should  be  rejected  as  a  breeder,  but  in  the  good 
and  common  grades  some  carelessness  is  exhibited  in  this  respect." 

5.  Breeding. — "The  breeding  most  sought  after  is  some 
one  of  the  Down  breeds,  chiefly  because  of  the  dark  color  upon 
the  face  and  legs.     Early  in  the  season  of  the  breeding  ewe  trade, 
when  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Virginia  are  taking  large  num- 
bers of  breeding  ewes,  color  has  a  pronounced  influence  upon 
the  desirability  of  a  ewe.     Of  two  ewes,  one  with  light  markings 
and  the  other  with  dark,  but  equal  in  all  other  respects,  the  one 
with  dark  markings  is  placed  a  grade  higher  than  the  other.     It 
is  also  desirable  that  the  breeding  of  choice  ewes  be  such  that 
they  have  abundant  fleeces  of  medium  wool,  which  means  that 
the  wool  be  of  medium  fineness  and  length,  dense,  and  evenly 
covering  all  parts  of  the  body.    Since  they  are  to  remain  in  the 
country  for  three  seasons,  the  quality  and  quantity   of   wool 
they  produce  is  no  inconsiderable  item." 

6.  Quality. — "Choice  breeding  ewes  should  have  smooth, 
rather  refined  features,  and  bone  of  medium  size.     Ewes  of  this 


232         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

grade  are  used  to  produce  choice  and  prime  lambs  for  the  spring 
and  early  summer  markets,  and  without  a  great  deal  of  general 
quality,  they  could  scarcely  fulfill  their  mission.  It  is  well  to 
distinguish  between  good  general  quality  and  over-refinement, 
as  delicate,  over-refined  ewes  are  without  sufficient  constitution 
to  be  profitable  producers." 

7.  Condition. — "While  choice  breeding  ewes  should  be 
thrifty  and  active,  fat  is  not  desirable  as  the  purchaser  prefers 
to  place  these  ewes  on  pasture  and  cheap  forage  feeds  which  will 
secure  the  condition  desired  at  a  lower  cost  than  the  price  de- 
manded on  the  market.  Breeding  ewes  are  somewhat  like 
feeder  lambs  in  that  they  are  the  result  of  a  sort  where  those 
ewes  of  desirable  form,  quality,  breeding,  age,  soundness,  and 
thrift,  but  somewhat  lower  than  mutton  condition,  are  selected 
out  from  those  that  are  fatter  and  desirable  for  mutton." 

Good  breeding  ewes. — Undesirable  markings,  age,  weight, 
form,  and  condition  cause  breeding  ewes  to  grade  as  good. 

Common  breeding  ewes. — This  grade  is  characterized  by 
mixed  breeding  and  advanced  age.  The  common  grade  of  breed- 
ing ewes  merges  with  the  feeder  class. 

Breeding  bucks. — Rams  are  taken  out  of  the  Chicago  and 
other  markets  for  breeding  purposes,  but  most  of  them  are  of 
poor  form  and  mixed  breeding.  Anyone  who  has  visited  the 
sheep  pens  at  Chicago  or  at  any  other  large  live-stock  center 
will  testify  that  the  breeder  who  goes  to  the  open  market  to 
select  sires  will  never  succeed  in  raising  the  merit  of  his  flock 
above  the  level  of  mediocrity.  The  practice  is  unjustifiable 
and  unprofitable. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Hot-house  lambs. — These  are  lambs  produced  early  and 
marketed  before  the  general  run  of  spring  lambs  starts  to  market, 
which  is  about  May  20.  A  few  shipments  reach  the  Chicago 
market,  where  they  are  called  "spring  lambs,"  but  the  open 
market  is  not  the  best  place  to  dispose  of  such  a  product.  The 
men  who  have  made  the  most  profit  from  the  production  of  hot- 
house lambs  are  those  who  cater  directly  to  the  eastern  hotel 
and  restaurant  trade.  The  practice  is  to  slaughter  the  lambs 
on  the  farm  where  they  are  produced,  and  pack  the  carcasses 
in  ice  for  shipment,  small  shipments  being  made  regularly  during 
the  winter  and  early  spring.  They  are  in  most  demand  from 
Christmas  until  Easter.  They  must  be  fat  and  weigh  between 
40  and  55  pounds. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         233 

Throw  outs. — When  bands  of  lambs  reach  Chicago,  they 
are  at  once  sorted  into  the  mutton  and  feeder  classes.  The 
buyer  of  the  feeders  usually  has  the  privilege  of  rejecting  those 
suitable  for  feeding  purposes.  The  rejections,  called  "throw- 
outs,"  are  made  up  of  lambs  that  are  lame,  unthrifty,  blind,  un- 
castrated,  undocked,  over  weight,  under  weight,  badly  wrinkled, 
sore  mouthed,  burry,  black,  low  backed,  or  open  fleeced.  They 
are  purchased  by  small  city  butchers  who  have  a  cheap  trade. 
They  sell  at  cull-lamb  or  medium-lamb  prices. 

Dead  sheep. — Sheep  which  die  in  transit  are  valued  chiefly 
for  their  wool.  If  mangled  and  badly  trampled,  they  are  worth- 
less, and  fifty  per  cent,  of  dead  sheep  reach  the  market  in  this 
condition. 

Goats. — These  are  sold  for  slaughter  if  they  are  in  good 
condition,  but  do  not  bring  as  high  price  as  sheep.  The  supply 
is  limited.  Thin  goats  are  often  taken  to  the  country  to  clean 
up  brush  land. 

Sheep  Prices  at  Chicago. 

Chicago  prices  during  1918. — The  lowest  and  highest  prices 
paid  in  Chicago*  on  the  open  market  for  the  various  classes  of 
sheep  in  1918  were  as  follows:  Native  mutton  lambs,  $8.00— 
$21.50;  western  mutton  lambs,  $8.00— $21.50;  .spring  lambs, 
$6.00— $22.00;  mutton  yearlings  (natives  and  westerns),  $8.50— 
$20.00;  native  mutton  sheep,  $2.50— $17.50;  western  mutton 
sheep,  $3.00— $17.00;  feeder  lambs,  $10.50— $21.75;  feeder  sheep 
and  yearlings,  $4.50— $16.00;  breeding  ewes,  $8.00— $19.00. 
In  each  instance  the  highest  price  listed  above  represents  a  new 
high  record  on  the  Chicago  market,  except  breeding  ewes  which 
established  a  record  of  $20.00  at  Chicago  in  1917. 

Market  values  of  the  various  classes. — The  comparative 
market  values  of  the  sub-classes  of  mutton  sheep  are  shown 
by  the  following  table,  giving  the  yearly  average  prices  at  Chicago 
for  the  several  sub-classes  from  1909  to  1918,  and  also  the  aver- 
ages for  the  entire  ten-year  period : 


*  Year  Book  of  Figures,  1919. 


234 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


VoOT« 

Larabs               Year- 

Sheep 

All 

All 

i  ear 

Natives 

Westerns 

lings 

Natives 

Westerns 

lambs 

sheep 

1909 

$7.30 

$7.50 

$6.00 

$4.95 

$5.00 

$7.40 

$5.00 

1910 

7.40 

7.65 

6.30 

5.10 

5.35 

7.55 

5.25 

1911 

5.70 

6.05 

4.50 

3.80 

4.05 

5.95 

3.95 

1912 

6.90 

7.35 

5.65 

4.40 

4.75 

7.20 

4.60 

1913 

7.50 

7.85 

6.35 

5.00 

5.30 

7.70 

5.20 

1914 

7.75 

8.15 

6.55 

5.35 

5.70 

8.00 

5.55 

1915 

8.85 

9.15 

7.45 

6.10 

6.45 

9.00 

6.30 

1916 

10.35 

10.90 

9.25 

7.70 

7.95 

10.75 

7.85 

1917 

15.35 

15.80 

13.00 

10.90 

11.15 

15.60 

11.00 

1918 

16.25 

16.85 

13.75 

11.75 

12.35 

16.60 

12.15 

10-year 

average 

$9.35 

$9.75 

$7.90 

$6.50 

$6.80 

$9.60 

$6.70 

The  above  table  shows  that  western  lambs  outsell  native 
lambs  by  40  cents  per  cwt.,  and  western  sheep  outsell  native 
sheep  by  30  cents  per  cwt.  All  lambs  together  have  averaged 
$2.90  more  per  cwt.  than  all  sheep  during  the  ten  years  from 
1909  to  1918  inclusive.  Lambs  sell  $1.70  higher  than  yearlings, 
and  yearlings  outsell  sheep  by  $1.20.  The  inability  of  thin 
natives  to  sell  for  feeding  purposes  largely  explains  the  differ- 
ence in  prices  between  native  sheep  and  western  sheep  in  the 
mutton  class. 

As  a  rule,  the  lowest  prices  for  sheep  and  lambs  are  paid 
the  first  week  in  November,  and  the  highest  prices  are  paid  the 
last  week  in  March. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
BREEDING  FOR  THE  MARKET. 

In  colonial  times,  sheep  were  all  of  the  coarse-wooled  type, 
brought  with  the  settlers  from  England  and  Holland.  They 
were  the  unimproved  original  stock  from  which  the  present 
English  breeds  have  sprung.  Later,  George  Washington  and 
other  leading  agriculturists  of  the  time,  introduced  sheep  repre- 
senting the  early  breeding  improvement  in  Europe.  After  the 
organization  of  the  national  government  the  Merinos  made 
their  appearance.  In  1860,  the  Merino  was  the  outstanding 
feature  among  American  sheep.  In  1870,  more  than  four-fifths 
of  American  sheep  were  Merinos  or  their  grades.  There  were  a 
few  middle-wooled  sheep  and  a  very  few  flocks  of  the  long-wooled 
breeds  in  the  middle  states  and  in  the  Ohio  valley.  The  old 
coarse  wools  were  scattered  through  the  South.  Kentucky  had 
the  largest  number  of  long  wools.  Importations  were  made 
from  England  and  Canada.  In  Texas  and  New  Mexico  were 
Mexican  sheep  of  Spanish  origin  that  had  degenerated  and 
almost  reverted  to  the  wild  state.  Their  fleeces  were  coarse 
and  hairy  and  weighed  only  one  or  two  pounds. 

When  the  first  exports  of  beef  were  made  to  England,  about 
1875,  the  "Scotsman,"  a  Scottish  newspaper,  sent  Mr.  James 
Macdonald  to  America  to  investigate  the  American  live-stock 
industry  and  render  a  complete  report.  The  results  of  this 
investigation  were  published  by  Mr.  Macdonald  in  1878  in  a 
book  entitled,  "Food  from  the  Far  West."  His  remarks  upon 
the  state  of  the  sheep  industry  in  the  United  States  at  that  time 
were  as  follows: 

"No  one  in  political  or  agricultural  circles,  or  elsewhere, 
seems  so  confident  of  the  export  of  mutton  becoming  or  con- 
tinuing so  extensive  or  so  profitable  as  that  of  beef.  Mutton 
is  not  considered  an  important  article  of  food  in  America,  and 
the  feeding  of  sheep  has  received  but  very  little  attention  from 
its  farmers.  Sheep-farming  is  certainly  carried  on  very  ex- 
tensively all  over  America,  especially  in  the  Western  States  of 
the  Union  and  on  the  Pacific  slopes;  but,  with  a  few  exceptions 
in  the  older  and  Eastern  States,  the  sheep-farmer's  whole  harvest 
is  his  "clip"  of  wool.  There  is  no  demand  for  mutton,  and  there- 

235 


236         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

fore  he  prepares  none.  He  keeps  a  class  of  sheep  specially 
adapted  for  producing  wool,  and  allows  his  old  sheep  to  die  away 
naturally,  or  go  where  they  may — that  is,  if  he  cannot  dispose 
of  them,  even  for  a  mere  trifle,  before  they  reach  the  ripe  old 
age  of  eight  or  nine  years." 

Sheep  grew  in  number  from  19,000,000  in  1840  to  22,500,000 
in  1860,  to  35,000,000  in  1880,  to  36,000,000  in  1890,  to  61,500,000 
in  1900,  and  to  63,000,000  in  1910.  The  number  in  1919  was 
49,863,000.  The  loss  since  1910  is  13,137,000  in  nine  years. 

There  has  been  a  steady  increase  since  1860  in  the  propor- 
tionate number  of  mutton  sheep.  This  has  been  mostly  due 
to  the  increased  demand  for  meat,  and  partly  to  the  demand 
for  wools  other  than  the  Merino,  that  is,  the  combing  wools. 
The  flocks  of  mutton  sheep  increased  in  all  parts  of  the  country, 
though  Merino  improvement  was  still  the  predominating  fea- 
ture in  sheep  husbandry  in  Vermont,  New  York,  Pennsylvania. 
Ohio,  Michigan,  and  elsewhere,  and  the  great  flocks  of  the 
ranges  became  Merino  grades  of  a  high  order  of  merit.  In 
recent  years  many  Merino  flocks  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
country  have  been  made  over  into  mutton  flocks  by  several 
succeeding  crosses  of  mutton  blood,  while  on  the  western  ranges 
increasing  numbers  of  mutton  rams  have  been  used  for  crossing 
on  range  flocks  to  produce  a  more  practical  wool-and-mutton 
type.  East  of  the  Missouri  River  the  majority  of  sheep  are  of 
the  mutton  type,  while  on  western  ranges  Merino  blood  pre- 
dominates. 

The  sheep  census. — The  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
estimated  that  on  January  1,  1919,  there  were  49,863,000  sheep 
and  lambs  in  the  United  States,  and  that  their  average  value 
per  head  was  $11.61.  The  leading  states  in  numbers  of  sheep 
were  as  follows: 

I.Wyoming..                    ..4,018,000  6.  California. .                 ..2,943,000 

2.  Idaho..  .  ...3,234,000          7.  Oregon 2,497,000 

3.  New  Mexico 3,135,000          8.  Utah 2,410,000 

4.  Montana 2,984,000          9.  Colorado 2,303,000 

5.  Ohio 2,980,000        10.  Texas 2,232,000 

The  distribution  by  geographical  divisions  was  as  follows: 

North  Atlantic 2,216,000 

South  Atlantic 2,179,000 

North  Central,  East  of  Mississippi  River 7,941,000 

North  Central,  West  of  Mississippi  River 5,405,000 

South  Central 4,898,000 

Far  Western. ......  27,224,000 


Total  United  States 49,863,000 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        237 

The  foregoing  figures  show  that  the  far  western  division, 
which  includes  the  range  states,  has  more  sheep  than  all  other 
divisions  combined. 

In  the  United  States*  the  sheep  slaughter,  including  lambs, 
was  44.9  per  cent,  of  the  stock  of  ewes  in  1900,  and  46.1  per  cent, 
in  1910.  The  census  of  1900  indicated  that  the  average  amount 
of  mutton  and  lamb  produced  during  the  year  was  18  pounds 
per  head  of  stock  ewes.  The  figure  for  1910  was  19  pounds. 
Sheep  have  a  lower  ratio  than  cattle  or  swine.  The  reason  for 
this  is  found  in  the  low  meat  productivity  of  sheep  kept  for 
wool. 

Source  of  improvement. — A  certain  few  men  have  col- 
lected the  very  choicest  purebred  and  registered  mutton  sheep 
that  may  be  had,  almost  regardless  of  price,  and  have  estab- 
lished magnificent  flocks  upon  which  they  have  used  rams  that 
were  selected  with  great  care  and  at  considerable  expense.  The 
owner  of  such  a  flock  makes  it  his  business  to  supply  breeding 
rams  and  some  breeding  ewes  to  breeders  of  less  prominence 
than  himself.  Year  after  year  he  slowly  improves  his  flock 
by  careful  selection  and  mating,  and  he  is  thus  enabled  to  send 
out  better  rams  each  year  to  head  the  flocks  of  less  prominent 
breeders.  In  turn,  these  less  prominent  flocks  supply  better 
breeding  animals  to  more  numerous  and  still  less  noted  breeders, 
and  so  the  scheme  works  out,  improvement  slowly,  but  surely, 
flowing  downward  and  outward  from  a  few  flocks  to  the  many. 
There  is  a  third  class  of  breeders  who  are  producing  directly  for 
the  market.  The  produce  of  their  flocks  is  sold  to  feeders,  or 
else  they  themselves  feed  out  the  lambs  for  market.  We  may, 
therefore,  classify  all  flocks  of  sheep  as  follows: 

1.  A  few  flocks  solely  for  improvement. 

2.  Numerous  flocks  primarily  for  propagation  and   sec- 
ondarily for  improvement. 

3.  Many  flocks  solely  for  mutton  production. 

The  breeders  of  the  third  class  secure  their  rams  from  the 
second-class  flocks,  and  their  ewes  are  generally  grades. 

The  mutton  breeding  ram. — The  selection  of  the  breeding 
ram  should  be  most  carefully  made  as  he  affords  the  chief  op- 
portunity for  improvement  in  the  flock.  For  this  reason  it  is 
wise  to  invest  several  times  the  average  value  of  the  ewes  in  the 
purchase  of  a  ram  to  mate  with  them.  However,  it  is  not  so 

*  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Report  109,  p.  124. 


238 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


much  a  matter  of  securing  a  ram  at  such  or  such  a  price  as  it  is 
of  selecting  a  sire  of  merit  that  is  strong  in  the  points  wherein 
the  ewe  flock  is  weak,  and  whose  offspring  will  possess  a  higher 
standard  of  merit  than  the  ewes  from  which  they  came.  It  is 
a  breeding-up  process,  and  this  fact  justifies  more  careful  selec- 
tion and  greater  expenditure  of  money  in  each  succeeding  pur- 
chase of  a  ram.  It  is  always  a  matter  of  locating  the  sort  of 
ram  desired,  and  the  price  demanded  for  him  should  not  stand 
in  the  way  of  a  purchase  unless  it  is  really  exorbitant. 

The  breeding  ram  of  mutton  type  must  be,  first  of  all,  a 
good  mutton  animal,  including  as  high  development  of  the  form, 


Fig.  7.1.     Correct  Type  in  the  Mutton  Breeding  Ram. 

Southdown  ram,  Babraham  Bumper,  Champion  at  the  English  Royal 
Show  in  1909.  Bred  and  shown  by  Mr.  C.  Adeane,  Babraham  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, England.  Note  the  masculine  head  and  neck,  blocky  body,  heavy 
leg  of  mutton,  and  good  bone  of  this  ram. 

quality,  and  fleshing  as  may  be  secured.  He  must,  in  addition, 
have  a  strong,  robust  constitution  as  evidenced  by  a  wide,  deep 
chest  and  middle  and  good  feeding  qualities.  The  story  is  told 
of  an  English  shepherd  who  visited  a  certain  flock  to  purchase 
a  yearling  ram.  After  much  deliberation,  he  found  himself 
unable  to  decide  among  several  of  the  offerings,  all  of  which 
suited  him.  Suddenly  his  serious  expression  changed  to  one  of 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        239 

renewed  interest,  and  turning  to  the  owner  he  said,  "Feed  'em." 
Grain  was  placed  in  a  trough  in  full  view  of  the  rams,  at  sight  of 
which  one  pricked  up  his  ears  and  marched  quickly  to  the  trough, 
the  others  following  more  leisurely.  "That's  him,"  said  the 
buyer,  pointing  to  the  ram  in  front,  for  in  common  with  all 
experienced  feeders  he  recognized  the  significance  of  good  feed- 
ing qualities.  A  strong  appetite  is  evidence  of  constitution, 
thrift,  lustiness,  and  health,  and  indicates  a  disposition  to  de- 
velop quickly  and  make  economical  gains. 

The  ram  should  exhibit  strong  sexual  characteristics,  these 
being  a  strong  head  with  distinctly  masculine  features  and 
expression,  a  well-developed  crest  or  scrag  similar  to  the  crest 
of  the  beef  bull,  a  sufficiency  of  bone,  and  general  ruggedness 
of  build  throughout.  Style  in  the  ram,  including  an  active  gait 
and  bold  presence,  is  an  evidence  of  masculinity  and  breeding 
usefulness.  Particular  attention  should  be  given  to  the  shape, 
position,  and  strength  of  feet,  pasterns,  and  legs.  These  points 
should  receive  attention  in  any  sheep,  but  in  the  breeding  ram 
their  importance  is  magnified.  The  feet  should  be  well  formed, 
the  pasterns  strong,  the  bone  ample,  and  the  legs  straight.  Weak- 
ness in  the  hind  legs  is  of  more  consequence  than  weakness  in 
front,  as  it  injures  the  breeding  usefulness  to  a  greater  degree. 
The  hocks  should  not  be  bent  so  as  to  give  the  hind  leg  a  sickled 
appearance  as  viewed  from  the  side;  and  when  viewed  from  the 
rear,  the  hind  legs  should  not  be  bowed  outward,  but  placed 
straight  and  square  beneath  the  quarters.  Weak  or  broken 
down  hind  pasterns  are  particularly  objectionable  in  a  breeding 
ram. 

The  ram's  fleece  should  be  heavy  and  of  good  quality  ac- 
cording to  his  breed,  special  attention  being  given  to  the  wool 
in  case  the  ewe  flock  averages  below  desired  standards  for  fleece. 

So  far  as  the  fatness  of  the  ram  is  concerned,  greater  satis- 
faction will  ordinarily  result  from  the  purchase  of  a  ram  in 
medium  condition,  or  what  shepherds  call  a  field  ram,  than  one 
that  has  been  much  pampered  in  preparation  for  sale  or  show. 
The  latter  may  present  a  more  attractive  form  and  appearance 
at  the  time  of  purchase,  but  must  be  let  down  in  flesh  before 
he  can  be  used  for  breeding  purposes,  and  it  is  often  true  that 
with  loss  of  fat  there  are  revealed  some  ratherdisappointing  points 
in  form.  This  more  often  happens  when  the  buyer  is  a  novice 
and  the  ram  has  had  the  additional  advantage  of  the  correcting 
power  of  shears  in  expert  hands.  In  any  case,  the  purchase 


240          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

price  of  a  fitted  ram  must  include  the  cost  of  fitting,  which  may 
be  a  considerable  amount.  It  is,  of  course,  a  fact  that  the  very 
choicest  rams  are  highly  fitted  before  being  offered  for  sale,  as 
no  flock  owner  expects  to  realize  full  value  for  an  exceptional 
ram  unless  he  is  presented  in  finished  and  fitted  form;  however, 
this  applies  to  the  best  offerings  and  is  somewhat  outside  of  the 
matter  under  consideration.  When  rams  are  purchased  to  head 
ordinary  flocks  the  produce  of  which  are  sent  to  market,  it  will 
usually  be  best  to  pay  up  to  the  limit  of  price  for  a  field  ram  that 
suits,  rather  than  invest  the  same  amount  in  a  fitted  sheep. 

Only  purebred  sires  should  be  used  on  any  flock,  and  the 
same  breed  should  be  patronized  each  time  a  ram  is  purchased; 
in  other  words,  breeding  for  the  market  should  not  result  in  a 
mixture  of  breeds,  but  the  owner  should  breed  in  line,  grading 
up  his  flock  by  consecutive  crosses  of  the  same  breed.  Thus  will 
the  good  features  of  that  breed  be  so  strongly  stamped  upon  the 
flock  as  to  give  it  a  high  average  of  individual  merit  and  great 
uniformity. 

In  farm  flocks  one  ram  may  be  used  for  every  35  to  50  ewes. 
On  the  range  it  is  customary  to  use  one  ram  for  every  35  to 
40  ewes.  A  ram  lamb  should  not  be  used  for  heavy  service. 
The  period  of  gestation  for  ewes  is  somewhat  variable  but  is 
usually  146  days.  Although  ewe  lambs  are  sometimes  bred 
in  the  fall  so  that  they  will  lamb  the  next  spring  at  a  little  over 
a  year  old,  the  usual  plan  is  to  allow  the  ewe  lambs  to  grow 
and  develop  into  their  yearling  form,  breeding  them  in  the  fall 
to  rope  their  first  lambs  the  following  spring  at  two  years  old. 
The  breeding  of  ewe  lambs  is  not  ordinarily  considered  good 
practice. 

The  mutton  breeding  ewe. — Assuming  that  there  is  an 
established  ewe  flock  to  which  additions  are  made  from  the 
best  ewe  lambs  of  each  year,  the  problem  of  the  breeder  is  to 
weed  out  the  less  desirable  ewes  and  send  them  to  the  butcher, 
Herein  lies  a  second  advantage  from  the  use  of  good  males, 
for  if  the  sire  proves  a  successful  breeder,  the  owner  is  furnished 
with  excellent  material  with  which  to  replenish  his  ewe  flock, 
thus  permitting  closer  culling  of  the  aged  ewes  than  would  be 
possible,  had  an  inferior  ram  been  used.  Hence,  the  use  of  a 
good  ram  not  only  results  in  direct  improvement  in  the  first 
crop  of  lambs,  but  there  is  the  added  advantage  of  the  indirect 
improvement  which  is  realized  when  the  best  ewe  lambs  reach 
breeding  age. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


241 


It  is  easiest  to  cull  the  flock  a  short  time  after  shearing, 
allowing  a  few  days  to  elapse  in  order  that  the  ewes  may  recover 
from  the  shabby  appearance  and  somewhat  disorganized  state 
common  to  many  of  them  immediately  after  being  shorn.  Aged 
ewes  and  broken-mouthed  ewes  should  have  been  weeded  out  the 
previous  fall,  the  cost  of  wintering  them  being  a  needless  expense 
inasmuch  as  they  are  difficult  to  winter  without  becoming  very 
low  in  flesh.  The  wintered  ewes  may  then  be  sorted  two  or  three 
weeks  after  shearing;  faulty  forms  and  lack  of  size  are  easily  de- 
tected at  that  time.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  part  with  ewes  that 


Fig.  72.     Correct  Type  in  the  Breeding  Ewe. 

Champion  Hampshire  ewe  at  the  1913  International,  owned  by  Mr.  A.  W. 
Arnold,  Galesville,  Wis.  This  ewe  has  strength  and  vigor,  combined  with 
femininity  and  quality.  Her  dark  points  are  an  asset,  and  her  roomy  middle 
and  dense  fleece  are  valuable  attributes  in  the  breeding  ewe. 

are  aged,  broken  in  mouth,  ruptured,  crippled,  or  defective  in 
udder,  but  it  sometimes  requires  strong  determination  to  give  up 
ewes  that  are  sound,  but  nevertheless  unworthy  because  of  faults 
in  form,  quality,  size,  or  fleece.  This  is  especially  true  when  close 
culling  will  not  leave  as  large  a  flock  as  it  is  desired  to  carry,  but 
in  the  long  run  it  will  be  best  to  err  on  the  side  of  too  close 


242         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

culling  rather  than  to  carry  certain  individuals  that  do  not 
measure  up  to  desired  standards.  Close  scrutiny  should  be  made 
of  heads,  necks,  breasts,  shoulders,  backs,  ribs,  rumps,  quarters, 
and  legs.  Form,  size,  quality,  constitution,  muscling,  and* 
smoothness  of  outline  should  receive  much  consideration,  the 
requirements  for  which  have  been  set  forth  in  preceding  chap- 
ters. One  word  more,  however,  may  well  be  added  on  heads 
and  necks.  The  following  by  Prof.  John  Wrightson,*  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Science,  London,  England,  is  much  to  the  point: 

"Nothing  looks  better  than  good  heads,  and,  strange  as  it 
may  seem,  a  sheep's  head,  which  is  only  worth  9d.  at  the  butcher's 
is  worth  a  lot  of  money  when  carried  on  a  good  ram  or  ewe.  A 
muscular  neck  indicates  strength  of  constitution  and  good  mus- 


Fig.  73.     A  Prize- Winning  Flock. 

Champion    Shropshire   flock   at   the  1913  International,  owned  by  A. 
Broughton  &  Sons,  Albany,  Wis. 

cular  development,  and  I  have  never  known  a  sheep  breeder 
who  did  not  strongly  object  to  a  shabby  neck.  Mr.  Ellman, 
the  father  of  the  Southdown  breed,  insisted  on  the  importance 
of  this  point.  Mr.  James  Rawlence,  of  Bulbridge,  one  of  the 
oldest  of  our  noted  breeders,  would  not  keep  a  weak-necked 
ewe,  and  no  man  who  values  his  flock  would  buy  a  ram  with 
this  fault.  The  neck  ought  to  be  muscular,  arched,  tapering, 
and  neat." 

Uniformity  in  shape,  size,  color  markings,  and  general  ap- 
pearance is  a  valuable  attribute  in  any  flock.  When  the  pro- 
duce is  intended  for  the  open  market,  this  insures  a  uniform  lot 


*  Sheep,  Breeds  and  Management,  p.  126. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


243 


of  lambs  for  feeding,  and  it  adds  much  to  the  attractiveness  of 
the  finished  lot  when  presented  to  the  buyer.  The  market's 
preference  for  dark  color  markings  may  well  be  kept  in  mind 
in  this  connection. 

The  breeder  who  aims  to  supply  the  open  market  must 
emphasize  the  matter  of  wool  when  building  up  a  breeding  flock. 
Although  meat  production  is  the  principal  object  in  view,  the 
clip  of  wool  from  such  a  flock  ought  to  be  an  important  source 
of  revenue.  Furthermore,  the  ewe  with  the  heavy  fleece  is 
better  protected  from  the  weather,  remains  more  healthy  for 
that  reason,  and  the  density  of  her  fleece  keeps  it  free  from  dirt, 


Fig.  74.     A  Flock  of  Uniform  Type. 

sand,  manure,  bits  of  straw,  and  other  foreign  matter.  Moisture 
is  better  excluded  and  the  yolk  thus  becomes  abundant,  protect- 
ing the  fibers  and  preventing  a  cotted  fleece.  Her  offspring, 
being  heavily  wooled,  is  less  subject  to  chills  and  colds  which 
hinder  rapid  growth  and  development.  And  lastly,  the  heavy 
fleece  finds  an  appreciation  on  the  live-stock  market.  All  along 
the  line,  therefore,  from  breeding  flock  to  packing  house,  the 
fleece  with  density,  length  of  staple,  and  quality  meets  with 
approval  and  increases  the  value  of  the  animal  it  covers. 

It  is  evident  that  it  takes  years  to  build  up  a  flock  of  much 
uniform  merit  and  value.     It  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  stock 


244        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

a  farm  with  sheep,  but  whether  or  not  the  undertaking  will  be 
successful  depends  very  largely  upon  the  wisdom  displayed  in 
the  culling  of  ewes,  selection  of  rams,  and  general  management 
of  the  flock.  In  no  other  kind  of  live  stock  does  the  individuality 
of  the  man  in  charge  display  itself  so  strongly  as  with  sheep. 
Sheep  respond  quickly  to  good  care,  and  deteriorate  rapidly 
when  neglected. 

Although  some  essential  points  in  flock  management  have 
necessarily  been  touched  upon  in  discussing  the  elements  that 
constitute  a  good  breeding  ram  and  breeding  ewe,  nevertheless 
a  detailed  discussion  of  sheep  management  cannot  be  presented 
here,  as  it  would  require  a  great  deal  of  space  and  is  outside  the 
range  of  the  general  subject  in  hand.  However,  such  important 
subjects  as  winter  management  and  feeding  of  ewes,  feeding  as 
a  factor  in  getting  ewes  in  lamb,  dipping,  management  at  lamb- 
ing time,  feeding  and  management  of  ewes  and  lambs,  docking 
and  castrating,  the  feeding  of  lambs,  shearing,  control  of  internal 
parasites,  the  sheep-killing  dog,  crops  to  grow  for  sheep — these 
and  many  other  subjects  relating  to  sheep  feeding  and  manage- 
ment should  be  carefully  studied  by  anyone  who  contemplates 
entering  the  sheep  business. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
THE  MERINO  OR  FINE-WOOL  TYPE. 

All  sheep  are  wool  bearing,  but  the  Merino  excels  in  weight 
and  fineness  of  fleece.  The  Merino  is  the  foundation  of  American 
sheep  husbandry.  It  is  the  most  important  sheep  in  America 
today,  though  less  so  than  formerly.  By  far  the  greater  num- 
ber of  grade  flocks,  especially  in  one  section  centering  in  Ohio, 
and  another  comprising  the  territory  west  of  the  Missouri  River, 
are  of  fine- wool  origin.  Of  the  50,000,000  sheep  in  the  United 
States,  over  27,000,000  are  in  the  Western  Division,  and  these 
are  largely  of  Merino  breeding.  Many  western  sheep  are 
brought  into  the  cornbelt  for  fattening. 

The  Merino  is  native  to  Spain,  and  from  the  Spanish  Merino 
have  come  all  present  breeds  of  Merino  sheep.  This  stock 
existed  in  Spain  prior  to  the  Christian  era,  but  in  all  its  history 
in  Spain  there  is  practically  no  record  of  attempts  at  improve>- 
ment.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  Spanish  Merinos  were  taken 
to  Saxony,  France,  United  States,  South  Africa,  Australia,  and 
other  countries  in  which  distinct  types  and  breeds  have  been 
developed  by  selection  from  the  old  Spanish  stock.  Over  20,000 
Merino  sheep  were  imported  into  the  United  States  prior  to 
1811,  and  these  formed  the  foundation  of  the  breed  known  as 
the  American  Merino.  Beginning  in  1840,  importations  of  the 
French  Merino  or  Rambouillet  were  made  to  America,  and  this 
breed  is  now  bred  extensively  to  supply  rams  for  western  flocks. 

The  American  Merino  is  the  outcome  of  efforts  to  develop 
a  sheep  with  a  fleece  of  the  greatest  possible  value.  Some 
breeders  carried  their  efforts  so  far  as  to  ignore  the  meat-produc- 
ing qualities  of  the  animals  they  bred,  centering  practically  all 
their  attention  on  the  fleece.  At  best,  the  improvement  of  any 
kind  of  live  stock  is  a  difficult  and  slow  undertaking.  When 
improvement  is  sought  in  one  or  a  few  respects,  the  desired 
results  are  secured  more  readily  and  in  greater  perfection  than 
when  an  attempt  is  made  to  improve  the  animal  in  a  rather 
large  number  of  ways.  It  is  still  more  difficult  to  improve  a 
breed  of  live  stock  along  two  or  more  opposing  or  antagonistic 
lines,  such  as  beef  and  milk,  mutton  and  wool,  strength  and  speed, 
»or  size  and  quality.  It  was  for  this  reason  that  many  breeders 

245 


246 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


of  Merino  sheep  in  America  willingly  sacrificed  the  meat  -producing 
qualities  of  their  flocks  in  order  that  the  production  of  wool  might 
be  made  as  large  as  possible.  These  breeders  developed  what  was 
formerly  known  as  the  Vermont  Merino,  a  type  that  contrasts  with 
mutton  type  as  strongly  as  dairy  cattle  contrast  with  beef  cattle. 
Other  breeders  of  fine-wooled  sheep  did  not  entirely  ignore 
the  mutton  qualities  of  their  animals,  but  placed  some  emphasis 
upon  a  good  conformation  and  a  reasonable  degree  of  fleshing; 
at  the  same  time  they  gave  most  attention  to  the  weight  and 
quality  of  fleece.  Efforts  of  this  kind  in  America  resulted  in 


Fig.  75.     Class  A  Merino  Ram. 

the  creation  of  what  is  known  as  the  Delaine  type  of  the  Amer- 
ican Merino;  in  France  similar  efforts  resulted  in  the  breed 
known  as  the  French  Merino  or  Rambouillet.  Thus  a  type 
was  established  having  better  mutton  qualities,  a  smoother  skin, 
a  fleece  of  greater  length  and  uniformity,  and  a  type  that  is  shorn 
much  more  easily  because  of  its  freedom  from  wrinkles.  Broadly 
speaking,  however,  the  differences  mentioned  in  the  ideals  of 
breeders  of  fine-wooled  sheep  have  not  resulted  in  enough  varia- 
tion in  type  to  prevent  a  satisfactory  study  of  fine-wooled  sheep 
as  a  single  group  or  type. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         247 

The  general  appearance  of  the  fine-wooled  sheep  is  very 
distinctive.  In  a  general  way,  the  conformation  closely  re- 
sembles that  of  the  dairy  cow.  There  is  the  same  narrowness 
of  forequarters  and  moderate  width  of  back  and  body,  the 
same  muscular  rather  than  fleshy  covering,  and  the  same  ten- 
dency to  be  somewhat  rangy  of  body  and  long  of  leg.  As  com- 
pared with  the  mutton  type,  there  is  proportionately  more 
length  and  narrowness  of  head,  more  length  and  thinness  of 
neck,  less  arch  of  rib,  and  less  development  of  thigh  and  twist. 
These  differences  are  marked,  so  that  shorn  of  their  fleeces, 
the  two  types  of  sheep  present  striking  differences  in  form. 
When  viewed  in  the  wool,  further  variations  are  manifest.  The 
fleece  of  the  fine-wooled  sheep  is  more  compact  and  is  often  very 
dark  in  color,  the  latter  being  due  to  the  very  heavy  secretion  of 
yolk  which  catches  dust  and  dirt  and  produces  a  black  gum  on 
the  exterior  of  the  fleece.  The  mutton-type  sheep  has  a  smooth 
skin,  but  the  fine-wooled  type  has  a  loose  skin  lying  more  or  less 
in  folds  or  wrinkles.  Sometimes  there  are  only  a  few  folds  about 
the  breast  and  lower  border  of  the  neck,  while  the  middle  and 
hindquarters  are  smooth;  but  a  large  class  of  fine-wooled  sheep 
present  a  very  wrinkled  appearance  over  the  entire  body. 

The  head  should  be  rather  short,  medium  wide,  and  well 
defined  or  clean-cut  in  its  features.  The  muzzle  should  be 
broad  and  the  nostrils  should  be  large.  Rams  should  have  a 
Roman  nose  with  more  width  than  ewes.  The  eyes  of  both 
sexes  should  be  rather  wide  apart,  large,  and  clear,  and  have 
a  quiet  expression.  The  forehead  should  be  somewhat  prom- 
inent and  have  a  fair  degree  of  width.  The  ears  should  be  fine, 
short,  covered  with  silky  hair,  and  actively  carried.  The  horns 
of  the  ram  should  be  placed  rather  well  apart  so  as  to  give  width 
and  strength  to  the  top  of  the  head.  At  maturity  the  horns 
attain  a  strong  development.  They  have  a  corkscrew  shape, 
turning  backward  from  the  base,  then  downward,  around  for- 
ward, and  up,  making  about  one  and  one-half  turns.  The  ewes 
are  hornless.  Wool  covers  the  poll,  forehead,  upper  part  of 
the  face,  and  cheeks,  while  the  ears  and  lower  part  of  the  face 
are  covered  with  white  hair,  which  should  be  very  soft  and  fine. 
The  skin  about  the  nose  is  often  wrinkled.  The  head  of  the 
ram  should  be  very  masculine  as  shown  by  heavy  horns,  wide 
poll,  Roman  profile,  and  heavy  nose,  all  parts  being  well  de- 
veloped or  massive  and  the  expression  resolute.  The  ewe 
should  have  a  refined  head  and  a  feminine  expression. 


248        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  neck  should  be  moderately  short  and  rather  muscular. 
The  neck  and  shoulders  do  not  blend  smoothly  as  in  the  mutton 
type,  although  extreme  angularity  or  roughness  is  undesirable. 
Males  should  show  a  heavily  muscled  neck;  a  pronounced  crest 
or  scrag  just  behind  the  poll  indicates  a  strongly  sexed  animal. 

The  shoulders  should  be  well  laid  in,  and  should  be  mus- 
cular. The  depth  of  fleshing  is  not  great  enough  to  give  that 
smoothness  of  form  which  characterizes  a  good  mutton-type 
animal.  The  tops  of  the  shoulders  are  often  sharp  and  high, 
especially  in  those  individuals  showing  the  more  extreme  devel- 


Fig.  76.     Class  B  Merino  Ram. 

opment  of  the  type;  but  a  neat,  rather  rounded  conformation 
with  a  fair  degree  of  smoothness  is  more  to  be  desired,  especially 
in  rams. 

The  breast  should  be  deep  and  have  moderate  width.  The 
absence  of  heavy  fleshing  makes  impossible  the  development 
of  any  marked  degree  of  plumpness  or  width,  yet  a  very  nar- 
row or  peaked  breast  indicates  a  cramped  chest  cavity  and 
lack  of  strong  constitution. 

The  chest  gets  its  capacity  from  depth  more  than  from 
width.  Extreme  narrowness  is  a  serious  fault;  the  fore-rib 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        249 

should  arch  sufficiently  and  carry  down  far  enough  to  provide 
a  roomy  chest.  The  fore  flank  should  be  reasonably  well  filled 
out.  Every  type  of  animal  needs  a  robust  constitution,  one 
of  the  best  evidences  of  which  is  a  large  heart-girth,  proper 
allowance  being  made,  when  judging,  for  the  thickness  of  fleshing 
which  covers  the  forequarters. 

The  front  legs  are  often  very  crooked  at  the  knees,  too 
close  together,  and  too  long.  They  should  be  reasonably  straight, 
moderately  wide  apart,  and  fairly  short.  The  feet  are  often 
poorly  formed  and  rather  weak,  whereas  they  should  be  well 
developed  and  strong.  The  shanks  should  be  reasonably  fine 
and  rather  short,  and  the  pasterns  should  be  free  from  weakness. 

The  back  and  loin  vary  somewhat  according  to  the  ideals 
of  breeders.  In  the  very  wrinkly  Merinos  in  which  the  mutton 
qualities  are  ignored,  the  top  is  noticeably  long  and  narrow, 
and  this  may  be  carried  to  an  undesirable  extreme.  In  the 
Delaine  Merino  and  Rambouillet,  the  back  is  proportionately 
shorter  and  wider.  In  any  case  the  top  should  be  straight  from 
shoulders  to  hips,  showing  a  fair  degree  of  width  of  back  and  a 
rather  wide,  strongly  muscled  loin. 

The  ribs  should  be  fairly  well  arched  and  should  show 
good  length  in  order  to  provide  proper  feeding,  breeding,  and 
chest  capacity.  The  middle  is  not  very  compact,  but  is  mod- 
erately long. 

The  hips  are  somewhat  prominent  on  account  of  their 
width  and  lack  of  deep  fleshing  throughout,  but  ragged  hips  are 
undesirable.  Much  smoothness  cannot  be  expected  in  a  Merino, 
yet  a  rather  neat,  tidy  conformation  is  demanded. 

The  rump  is  often  peaked  and  drooping,  but  the  best  form 
embodies  a  rump  that  is  long,  level,  and  medium  wide. 

The  thighs  and  twist  vary  with  respect  to  the  class  of  fine- 
wooled  sheep  under  consideration.  Generally  speaking,  the 
thigh  should  be  medium  thick,  and  the  muscling  between  the 
legs  should  be  sufficient  to  afford  at  least  a  moderate  development 
of  the  twist. 

The  hind  legs  should  be  straight,  medium  long,  reasonably 
fine,  strong  in  the  pastern,  and  placed  somewhat  apart.  A 
large  percentage  of  Merino  sheep  have  crooked  hind  legs,  the 
hocks  being  close  together  and  the  feet  too  wide  apart,  or  the 
hocks  much  bent  so  as  to  place  the  hind  feet  too  far  under  the 
body,  instead  of  carrying  straight  downward  from  hock  to  ground. 
The  feet  should  be  well  formed  and  strong. 


250        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  skin  should  have  a  bright  pink  color,  indicating  health. 
Fine-wooled  sheep  usually  show  an  excellent  color  of  skin  super- 
ior to  the  mutton  type.  As  already  mentioned,  the  skin  is  more 
or  less  folded  or  wrinkled.  The  Merino  has  not  only  a  thinner 
skin  than  the  mutton  breeds,  but  is  more  richly  furnished  with 
oil  glands  and  secretes  a  great  deal  more  yolk.  Fineness  of 
skin  and  fineness  of  wool  are  correlated  characters. 

The  quality  of  fine-wooled  sheep  is  evidenced  by  fineness 
of  fleece,  fineness  of  bone,  fineness  of  hair  on  face  and  ears,  and 
by  a  medium-sized,  clean-cut  head  with  fine  ears. 

The  style  of  the  fine-wooled  type  is  usually  rather  marked. 
Merinos  have  good  carriage  of  head  and  ear  and  are  quick  and 
active  in  their  movements,  walking  rapidly  and  covering  ground 
with  more  ease  and  speed  than  the  mutton-type  sheep.  Their 
greater  activity  partly  explains  their  popularity  on  western 
ranges  where  Merino  blood  forms  the  basis  of  most  flocks. 

The  fleece  of  the  Merino  has  a  very  high  degree  of  fineness, 
varying,  however,  in  different  flocks  and  in  different  individ- 
uals. The  skin  has  many  more  fibers  to  the  square  inch  than 
any  of  the  mutton  breeds;  in  other  words,  the  fleece  is  ordinarily 
very  compact  and  dense.  Density  and  fineness  are  outstanding 
features  in  a  good  fine-wooled  fleece,  the  crimp  being  very  fine 
and  regular  from  skin  to  tip  of  fiber.  The  very  finest  woolen 
fabrics  are  made  from  this  wool.  A  third  striking  feature  of 
the  Merino  fleece  as  compared  with  mutton  sheep  is  the  large 
amount  of  oil  or  yolk  it  contains.  This  gives  a  generous  coating 
to  each  fiber  so  as  to  preserve  its  soundness  and  pliancy.  Merino 
wool  commonly  undergoes  a  shrinkage  of  65  per  cent,  in  scour- 
ing, and  this  figure  is  not  infrequently  exceeded.  When  the 
secretion  of  yolk  is  very  excessive,  the  fleece  is  made  subject  to 
criticism  and  the  wool  buyer  makes  allowance  for  the  extra 
weight  in  the  price  he  offers. 

The  wool  should  cover  the  head  in  the  fashion  already 
described,  only  the  nose  and  ears  being  bare.  The  fleece  should 
cover  all  of  the  body  and  extend  down  the  legs  to  the  feet.  The 
belly  and  under  parts  vary  a  great  deal  in  the  covering  of  wool. 
It  is  important  that  the  belly  be  well  wooled,  and  that  the  natural 
bareness  occurring  at  the  armpits  be  as  limited  in  area  as  possible. 
The  scrotum  of  the  ram  should  be  covered  with  wool.  The 
wool  on  the  under  parts  of  the  animal  should  be  as  nearly  like 
the  rest  of  the  fleece  in  density  and  length  as  possible.  A  good 
Merino  flock  should  average  11  to  15  pounds  of  unwashed  wool. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


251 


Classification  of  fine-wooled  sheep. — Breeders  of  fine- 
wooled  sheep  and  the  managers  of  the  larger  sheep  shows  group 
or  classify  American  Merinos  into  three  classes  or  sub-types, 
known  respectively  as  A,  B,  and  C.  As  already  pointed  out, 
breeders  of  Merinos  have  differed  in  their  ideals  for  a  number 
of  years,  and  this  has  resulted  in  three  fairly  well-defined  classes. 
The  classification  is  based  chiefly  on  the  character  of  the  fleece, 
the  number  and  position  of  the  folds  or  wrinkles,  the  size  and 
weight  of  the  animal,  and  the  development  of  mutton  qualities. 


Fig.  77.     Class  C  Merino  Ram. 

Class  A. — These  are  the  smallest  and  most  wrinkly  of  the 
three  classes,  and  have  the  finest,  densest,  and  heaviest  fleeces, 
the  shortest  wool,  the  most  yolk,  the  poorest  mutton-  qualities, 
and  the  poorest  form.  Rams  weigh  about  140  pounds,  fleece 
off;  and  ewes  about  100  pounds.  There  are  heavy  folds  all  over 
the  sheep,  except  over  the  back.  A  good  ram  should  shear 
close  to  30  pounds,  and  a  ewe  about  20  pounds.  These  weights 
for  fleeces  represent  high  standards.  The  length  of  fiber  is  from 
\l/2  to  2 }/2  inches.  The  wool  shrinks  about  70  per  cent,  on  the 
average  when  scoured.  The  form  of  the  A  Merino  is  most 
narrow,  rangy,  leggy,  and  irregular  in  lines  of  the  three  classes, 


252 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


and  mutton  qualities  are  practically  wanting.  It  is  entirely  a 
wool  proposition,  with  weight  of  fleece  esteemed  above  every- 
thing else.  The  wrinkly  skin  results  in  considerable  variation 
between  the  wool  on  top  of  the  wrinkles  and  that  between. 
The  wool  on  the  tops  of  the  wrinkles,  being  opened  out  and 
more  exposed,  is  much  less  oily,  considerably  coarser,  and  slightly 
shorter. 

Class  B. — This  class  is  wrinkled  on  the  neck,  breast,  flanks, 
and  about  the  dock.     It  has  better  mutton  qualities  and  better 


Fig.  78.     Class  B  Merino  Ewe. 

form  than  A.  Rams  weigh  150  to  175  pounds;  ewes,  100  to 
115  pounds,  fleece  off.  Strictly  good  rams  of  this  class  should 
shear  25  pounds,  and  ewes  15  pounds.  The  fiber  measures  from 
2^  to  3  inches,  and  the  wool  shrinks  about  65  per  cent.  It 
sells  from  2  to  3  cents  higher  per  pound  than  the  wool  of  A. 

Class  C. — This  is  also  called  the  Delaine  class.  These 
sheep  are  free  from  folds,  unless  to  a  slight  extent  on  the  neck 
and  breast.  The  head,  legs,  and  body  are  not  so  well  wooled 
as  A  and  B.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  three  classes,  has  the  best 
form,  being  more  blocky  and  low  set,  and  has  the  best  mutton 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


253 


qualities.  It  is  a  creditable  meat  producer,  but  not  equal  to 
the  mutton  breeds.  The  ram  should  weigh  about  175  pounds, 
and  the  ewe  about  125  pounds,  fleece  off.  Rams  should  shear 
18  pounds,  ewes  11  pounds.  The  fleece  has  less  crimp  and 
fineness  and  less  density  than  the  fleece  of  A  or  B,  but  is  longer, 
measuring  from  3  to  4  inches.  The  wool  shrinks  about  60  per 
cent.,  and  sells  from  2  to  3  cents  higher  per  pound  than  B. 

The   Rambouillet  breed,   developed  in   France,   excels  all 
other  Merinos  in  size,  constitution,  and  mutton  qualities.     The 


Fig.  79.     Rambouillet  Ewe. 

ram  should  weigh  185  pounds  or  over,  and  the  ewe  155  pounds 
or  over.  Some  of  them  are  very  large,  rams  weighing  up  to 
300  pounds  and  over,  and  ewes  up  to  250  pounds.  They  have 
strong  frames,  heavier  bone  than  the  American  Merinos,  con- 
siderable length  of  leg,  and  the  top  line  is  usually  straighter 
than  the  American  Merino.  The  head  has  a  bold  appearance, 
is  carried  higher,  and  has  a  more  complete  covering  of  wool. 
The  Rambouillet  has  a  smooth  body  with  only  a  few  large  folds 
over  the  breast,  and  possibly  a  few  light  folds  at  the  flanks  and 


254        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

dock.  Rams  should  shear  from  15  to  20  pounds,  and  ewes 
10  to  12  pounds.  These  figures  are  surpassed  by  the  very  best 
of  the  breed.  The  weight  of  fleece  averages  less  than  that  of 
the  American  Merino,  mainly  because  of  less  oil  or  yolk.  The 
length  of  fiber  should  be  from  2^  to  3  inches,  although  much 
of  it  falls  short  of  this  length.  The  wool  has  great  fineness,  but 
not  quite  equal  to  that  of  the  American  Merino. 


CHAPTER  XX. 
WOOLS  AND  WOOL  GROWING. 

No  animal  has  a  covering  entirely  of  wool;  even  sheep 
have  hair  upon  the  face  and  lower  parts  of  the  legs.  Wool 
served  as  a  necessary  protection  to  sheep  in  the  wild  state,  the 
original  home  having  been  in  the  higher  parts  of  mountainous 
regions.  Wool  ranks  next  to  cotton  as  a  source  of  textile  fab- 
rics, the  temperate  regions  universally  using  woolen  products. 
The  per  capita  consumption  of  wool  has  increased  very  greatly. 
It  was  about  3  pounds  in  early  times  in  the  United  States  when 
all  spinning  and  weaving  was  done  in  the  home;  in  1850  it  was 
4  pounds;  it  is  now  about  6J^  pounds.  No  other  people  use  as 
much  wool  as  do  Americans,  nor  as  much  cotton.  The  world's 
clip  of  wool  averages  about  2  pounds  for  each  person. 


Fig.  80.     Wool  Fiber  Highly  Magnified. 

This  drawing  shows  the  scaly  surface  of  the  wool  fiber;  the  tips  of  the 
overlapping  scales  project  outward  and  point  toward  the  tip  of  the  fiber. 

As  a  rule,  sheep  are  shorn  only  once  a  year.  The  coming 
of  mild  weather  in  the  spring  marks  the  time  of  shearing.  Both 
hand  and  machine  shearing  are  practiced,  preferably  the  latter. 
As  the  wool  is  sheared  off  it  is  usually  kept  in  one  piece  so  far 
as  possible,  and  as  soon  as  the  fleece  is  removed  it  is  spread  out, 
with  the  flesh  or  cut  side  down,  any  loose  pieces  are  thrown  into 
the  center,  and  the  fleece  is  then  rolled  up  with  the  flesh  side 
out  and  is  tied  with  twine.  Prior  to  shipment  the  fleeces  are 
packed  in  large  sacks,  in  which  condition  they  arrive  at  the  various 
wool  markets  of  the  country. 

Growth  and  structure.— Wool  is  modified  hair.  The  term 
hair  is  ordinarily  used  to  designate  a  smooth,  straight  fiber  or 
filament  like  horse  hair.  Wool  differs  from  hair  in  being  more 
or  less  crimped  and  in  having  a  much  more  serrated  or  ridged 
surface.  The  surface  of  the  fiber  is  composed  of  a  single  layer 

255 


256         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

of  irregular,  overlapping  scales,  apparent  only  under  the  micro- 
scope, forming  the  wool  cuticle,  there  being  from  1200  to  3000 
exposed  points  of  these  scales  to  an  inch.  The  scales  open  or 
point  toward  the  tip  of  the  fiber,  like  shingles  put  on  the  wrong 
way.  Beneath  the  covering  of  scales  is  the  cortex  or  body  of 
the  fiber,  made  up  of  greatly  elongated  cells  united  into  bundles, 
and  in  the  center  of  the  fiber  there  is  sometimes  a  cavity  or 
canal  which  may  contain  granules  of  pigment. 

Hair  and  wool  are  very  similar  in  growth  and  structure, 
but  wool  is  crimped,  has  more  scales,  the  points  of  the  scales 
are  more  open  or  projecting,  and  the  entire  fiber  is  more  soft 


Fig.  81.     Cross-Section  of  a  Wool  Fiber. 

a,  Central  canal,  which  is  not  present  in  most  wools;  b,  cortex  or  body 
of  fiber,  composed  of  long,  spindle-shaped  cells  which  here  appear  oval  be- 
cause they  are  cut  transversely;  c,  wool  cuticle,  composed  of  scales.  (After 
McMurtrie.) 

and  flexible  than  hair.  These  small  differences  give  to  wool 
its  special  commercial  values.  Hair  will  not  retain  the  twisted 
state  given  to  it  in  spinning,  but  the  crimp  of  wool  causes  the 
fibers  to  become  entangled,  and  the  minute  scales  hook  to- 
gether and  hold  the  fibers  in  position  when  wool  is  spun  into 
yarn.  Thus  wool  has  a  thread-forming  quality  which  hair  has 
not,  preventing  slipping  and  separation  of  the  fibers  in  the 
yarn.  The  entanglement  and  locking  of  the  fibers  is  referred 
to  as  the  felting  quality  of  wool. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        257 

The  peculiar  structure  of  the  wool  fiber  was  first  deter- 
mined by  Youatt,  a  famous  English  observer  and  writer.  In 
Merino  wool,  the  scales  or  projections  are  very  distinct  and 
sharply  pointed,  and  it  was  by  an  examination  of  Merino  wool 
that  Youatt  determined  the  structure  of  the  wool  fiber.  In 
the  medium-wool  breeds,  the  scales  are  less  distinct  and  sharp, 
and  in  the  long-wool  breeds,  they  are  rounded  off  and  indistinct. 
In  Merino  wool,  about  2400  of  these  scale  ends  are  found  to  the 
inch;  in  the  Southdown  there  are  2000  to  2080;  and  in  the  Lei- 
cester, 1850  to  1860.  Hence,  Merino  wool  is  superior  in  felting 
quality,  the  others  standing  in  a  relation  proportional  to  the 
figures  given. 

Fineness  of  fiber. — Dr.  William  McMurtrie,  who  con- 
ducted extensive  investigations  of  wools  for  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,*  found  the  average  diameter  of  the  Merino 
fiber  to  be  1/1194  of  an  inch,  while  the  Southdown  had  an 
average  diameter  of  1/865,  the  Hampshire  Down  1/769,  the 
Lincoln  1/685,  the  Leicester  1/654,  the  Cotswold  1/605, 
and  the  Oxford  Down  1/581.  In  1860,  American  Merino 
fibers  with  a  diameter  of  1/1572,  and  American  Saxon  Merino 
fibers  measuring  1/1875  of  an  inch  in  diameter  were  exhibited 
in  London,  showing  the  extreme  fineness  which  may  be  secured 
in  wools. 

Secretion  and  composition  of  yolk. — Opening  into  each 
wool  follicle  are  a  couple  of  sebaceous  or  oil  glands,  furnishing 
a  profuse  secretion  of  an  oily  or  fatty  material,  called  the  yolk, 
which  is  thrown  out  at  the  same  time  the  fiber  is  formed.  This 
secretion  consists  largely  of  a  soapy  matter  having  a  potassium 
base,  together  with  an  animal  oil  which  gives  to  the  yolk  its 
peculiar  odor.  Yolk,  then,  is  not  strictly  a  grease  or  oil,  but  is 
a  soap  with  an  excess  of  oil.  This  explains  why  it  dissolves 
freely  in  warm  water  and  may  be  washed  almost  entirely  out 
of  the  fleece,  and  why  it  cleanses  and  whitens  the  hands  as  soap 
does.  The  quantity  and  fluidity  of  the  yolk  vary  greatly,  being 
greater  when  the  sheep  are  healthy  and  well  fed,  and  varying 
also  according  to  the  breed.  The  yolk  maintains  the  softness 
and  pliancy  of  the  fibers,  and  protects  the  scaly  surface  from 
injury  such  as  might  result  from  friction  of  the  fibers  against 
one  another  during  the  movements  of  the  animal.  It  also  helps 


*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Report,  Examination  of  Wools  and  Other  Animal 
Fibers. 


258         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

to  keep  the  fleece  clean  and  free  from  a  cotted  or  matted  con- 
dition. The  wool  manufacturer  removes  the  grease  from  wool 
by  the  scouring  process.  This  is  the  first  step  in  wool  manu- 
facture. 

Woolens  and  worsteds. — When  scoured  wool  is  combed, 
that  is,  drawn  through  metal  teeth,  the  fibers  are  made  to  lie 
parallel  to  each  other  and  foreign  matter  and  short  fibers  are 
combed  out.  This  waste  is  called  the  "noils,"  and  the  remain- 
ing long  fibers  are  called  the  "top."  Wool  used  for  combing 
under  the  Bradford  or  English  system  of  manufacture  must  be 
strong  and  at  least  2J/£  inches  long  in  order  to  give  the  yarn 
sufficient  strength.  Such  wool  is  called  combing  wool.  The 
yarn  made  from  combed  wool  (top)  is  called  worsted,  and  the 
cloths  made  of  it  are  known  as  worsted  goods. 


Fig.  82.     Woolen  and  Worsted  Yarns. 

In  the  woolen  yarn  above  the  short  wool  fibers  are  crossed  in  every 
direction,  while  in  the  worsted  yarn  below  the  fibers  are  longer  and  are  laid 
parallel  to  each  other. 

Wools  which  are  short  and  much  crimped  and  serratured 
are  called  clothing  or  carding  wools.  They  have  a  high  felting 
quality.  In  preparation  for  spinning  they  are  put  through  card- 
ing machines  which  jumble  the  fibers  together  in  any  and  every 
direction,  forming  a  mixed  mass  from  which  the  yarn  is  eventually 
drawn.  The  cloths  made  from  such  yarn  are  known  as  woolens. 

The  difference  between  woolens  and  worsteds  is  largely 
due  to  the  way  the  yarn  for  each  is  spun.  In  worsted  yarn  the 
fibers  are  arranged  as  parallel  as  possible  by  the  combing  process; 
in  woolen  yarn  they  are  crossed  in  every  direction  so  as  to  assist 
the  felting  or  milling  of  the  cloth.  Yarn  for  woolen  cloth  is 
very  slightly  twisted,  so  as  to  leave  the  fibers  as  free  as  possible 
for -the  felting  process;  worsted  yarn,  on  the  contrary,  is  hard 
spun  and  made  into  a  much  stronger  thread.  By  the  process 
of  manufacture,  woolens  are  felted  so  as  to  leave  little  or  no 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        259 

appearance  of  the  thread,  while  in  worsteds  the  threads  are  plainly 
evident.  Woolens  usually  have  a  fuzzy,  downy  surface,  while 
worsteds  have  a  smooth,  hard  finish.  Worsteds  hold  their  shape 
better  than  woolens.  Worsted  cloths  have  a  more  clearly 
defined  pattern  and  more  firmly  woven  appearance  than  woolens. 
Woolen  cloths  are  softer  and  the  various  colors  are  not  so  dis- 
tinct in  the  cloth.  The  principal  worsted  cloth  is  Serge,  while 
woolens  include  several  leading  varieties  such  as  Tweeds,  Chev- 
iots, and  Broadcloths.  The  manufacture  of  woolen  underwear 
is  also  essentially  a  woolen  process. 

Shoddy,  obtained  by  tearing  up  woolen  rags  by  machinery, 
now  enters  into  the  composition  of  all  except  the  very  finest 
woolen  yarns,  but  cannot  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  worsted 
yarn  under  the  Bradford  or  English  system.  However,  a  vary- 
ing proportion  of  cotton  threads  are  often  woven  into  worsted 
cloth. 

Worsteds  may  be  dyed  in  the  top,  the  yarn,  or  the  cloth. 
Woolens  may  be  dyed  in  the  wool,  the  yarn,  or  the  cloth. 

Pounds  of  wool  per  pound  of  cloth. — For  woolen  goods, 
from  3  to  4.64  pounds  of  grease  wool,  with  an  average  of  3.73 
pounds,  are  required  to  make  1  pound  of  cloth.  The  average 
amount  of  scoured  wool  required  is  1.37  pounds.  For  worsted 
cloths,  from  2.56  pounds  to  4.55  pounds  of  grease  wool  is  re- 
quired, with  an  average  of  3.66  pounds.  The  average  amount 
of  scoured  wool  for  1  pound  of  worsted  cloth  is  1.55  pounds.* 

Classification  of  wools. — Wools  may  be  classified  according 
to  their  origin  and  also  according  to  their  value  and  adaptability 
for  different  uses.  The  classifications  in  common  use  in  this 
country  are  as  follows: 

Clipped  wools  and  pulled  wools. — The  first  distinction  made 
in  wools  is  to  divide  them  into  fleece  or  clipped  wools  and  pulled 
wools.  The  former  are  the  ordinary  clipped  wools  coming  to 
market  in  separate  fleeces.  These  are  the  more  valuable  and 
constitute  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  wool  of  commerce. 
Pulled  wools  are  those  derived  from  the  pelts  of  slaughtered 
sheep  in  the  manner  described  later  on.  They  are  marketed 
in  500-pound  bales.  Pulled  wools  constitute  about  one-seventh 
of  all  the  wool  produced  in  the  United  States. 

Domestic,  territory,  and  carpet  wools. — Domestic  wools 
are  wools  coming  from  the  small  farm  flocks  east  of  the  Missouri 


U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206,  by  F.  R.  Marshall  and  L.  L.  Heller. 


260         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

river.  For  the  most  part,  the  sheep  are  of  mutton  type  and 
breeding.  As  compared  to  territory  wools,  these  wools  are 
usually  clean  and  bright,  due  to  the  better  protection  and  care 
given  the  sheep.  Territory  wools  are  those  produced  west  of 
the  Missouri  river,  and  they  derive  their  name  from  the  fact 
that  this  section  was  formerly  made  up  of  Territories  in  distinc- 
tion to  the  States  of  the  central  and  eastern  sections.  Territory 
wools  are  produced  by  the  large  flocks  of  range  sheep  which 
contain  much  fine- wool  bipod,  though  the  use  of  medium-  and 
long-wooled  mutton  rams  is  increasing.  They  shrink  from 
63  to  70  per  cent,  on  the  average  when  scoured,  and  sometimes 
over  80  per  cent.,  due  to  the  presence  in  fleeces  of  sand,  dirt, 
and  considerable  yolk.  Carpet  wools  are  inferior  and  low- 
priced  wools  containing  much  kemp  or  dead  fibers,  and  are  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  carpets  and  coarse  blankets.  Very  little 
carpet  wool  is  produced  in  this  country. 

Domestic  wools  may  be  subdivided  into  two  groups  or  sub- 
classes, known  as  "bright"  and  "semi-bright,"  depending  on 
the  whiteness  and  luster  of  the  fiber.  Bright  wool  is  produced 
by  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  West  Virginia,  Kentucky, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota. 
Semi-bright  wool  comes  from  the  Dakotas,  western  Kansas, 
and  Nebraska.  They  are  midway  between  the  bright  and  the 
territory  in  condition,  having  more  sand  and  dirt  than  the 
bright  but  not  as  much  as  the  territory.  The  best  bright  wools 
are  those  known  as  "Ohio"  wools,  produced  not  only  in  Ohio 
but  also  in  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia.  More  than  half 
of  the  flocks  of  this  region  are  of  Merino  breeding.  Ohio  wool 
is  famous  for  strength,  cleanliness,  and  general  quality,  and 
commands  a  premium  on  the  market. 

The  states  which  produce  territory  wool  are  Montana, 
Wyoming,  Idaho,  Utah,  Nevada,  Colorado,  and  Washington. 
These  are  mainly  range  states.  Sand  storms  deposit  much 
sand  and  dirt  in  the  fleeces.  When  the  range  is  bare  of  snow 
in  winter  the  wool  often  shrinks  5  per  cent,  more  than  when 
the  ground  has  been  covered.  Because  of  tjie  varying  shrinkage 
of  territory  wools,  they  are  sold  on  the  market  upon  a  clean  or 
scoured  basis. 

The  clips  of  California,  Oregon,  Texas,  Arizona,  and  New 
Mexico  are  no  longer  classed  as  territory  wools  due  to  the  fact 
that  they  have  rather  distinct  characteristics.  In  Texas,  shear- 
ing is  often  practiced  twice  a  year,  in  which  case  the  wool  comes 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        261 

to  market  untied.  In  California,  the  northern  counties  shear 
once  a  year,  but  the  middle  and  southern  counties  often  shear 
twice  a  year,  the  wool  shrinks  more  than  that  of  the  northern 
counties,  and  it  comes  to  market  untied.  Oregon  produces 
some  excellent  wool,  though  somewhat  high  in  shrinkage.  The 
state  also  produces  what  are  known  as  valley  wools,  largely 
from  long-wooled  sheep.  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  wools  are 
very  uneven  in  character  and  often  kempy,  due  to  lack  of  care 
of  the  sheep  and  inferior  breeding.  They  come  to  market  untied 
and  are  poorly  put  up. 


Fig.  83.     Clothing  and  Combing  Wools. 

Washed,  unmerchantable,  and  unwashed. — Formerly  the 
practice  of  washing  sheep  just  prior  to  shearing  was  extensively 
followed  in  the  eastern  states.  This  gave  rise  to  the  terms 
of  washed,  unmerchantable,  and  unwashed.  Unmerchantable 
wool  is  not  unsaleable  wool,  but  that  which  has  been  poorly 
washed.  Fleeces  may  be  unmerchantable  for  other  reasons. 
The  practice  of  washing  is  almost  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  the 
use  of  these  terms  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  the  washing 
operation  has  actually  taken  place,  but  sometimes  refers  solely 
to  shrinkage.  Washed  wools  are  lighter  in  color  and  condition, 


262        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

shrinking  3  or  4  per  cent,  less  than  unmerchantable,  and  the 
latter  shrinks  about  3  or  4  per  cent,  less  than  the  unwashed. 

Market  classes  and  grades  of  wool.  —  Most  American- 
grown  wool  is  sacked  just  as  the  fleeces  come  from  the  sheep 
and  sold  at  home  to  dealers.  Before  offering  the  wool  to  the 
manufacturer  the  dealer  opens  the  sacks  and  makes  up  from  his 
various  purchases  a  number  of  piles,  each  containing  only  fleeces 
of  similar  character  and  value.  This  is  called  grading,  and  it 
is  performed  without  untying  the  fleeces. 

The  first  division  which  the  market  makes  in  wools  is  to 
divide  them  into  the  Domestic  and  Territory  classes.  The 
advantages  of  domestic  over  territory  wool  have  been  mentioned. 
Each  of  these  is  again  divided  into  the  Combing  and  Clothing 
classes.  Combing  wool  is  usually  worth  about  10  per  cent. 
more  than  the  short  or  clothing  wool,  and  the  aim  of  the  wool- 
grower  is  to  produce  combing  wool.  Each  class  is  divided  into 
grades,  and  in  grading  fleeces  the  main  factor  is  fineness  of  fiber, 
although  other  factors  such  as  length,  shrinkage,  and  general 
character  are  considered.  The  various  grades  are  adapted  to 
the  manufacture  of  different  kinds  of  fabrics.  Thus  the  wool 
dealer  is  enabled  to  supply  the  manufacturer  not  merely  a  cer- 
tain general  class  such  as  combing  wool  or  clothing  wool,  but  a 
particular  kind  or  grade  of  fleeces  within  that  class  specially 
adapted  to  his  mill.  The  complete  classification  may  be  rep- 
resented in  outline  as  follows: 

DOMESTIC  WOOLS. 
Combing  wools  Clothing  wools 

Delaine!  tedium  }often  one  Sra^e  xx  and  x»  washed  or  fine  unwashed 

Half-blood  Half-blood  clothing 

Three-eighths-blood  Three-eighths-blood  clothing 

Quarter-blood  Quarter-blood  clothing 
Low  quarter-blood 
Braid 

TERRITORY  WOOLS. 
Combing  wools  Clothing  wools 


i£eme±mstaple    «-<  m  usually  one  grade 

clothing     J 

Half-blood  staple  Half-blood  clothing 

Three-eighths-blood  staple  Three-eighths-blood  clothing 

Quarter-blood  staple  Quarter-blood  clothing,  or  short 

Low  quarter-blood  staple  quarter-blood 

Coarse^common,  low,  or  \  often  Qne  grade 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         263 


As  previously  explained,  combing  wools  are  at  least 
inches  long  without  stretching,  while  clothing  wools  are  all  under 
that  length.  It  will  be  noticed  that  much  the  same  names  are 
given  to  the  grades  within  each  class.  The  term  "staple"  as 
applied  to  territory  wools  means  the  same  as  the  term  "combing 
wool  " 

If  a  Merino  sheep  east  of  the  Missouri  river  grows  a  fleece 
that  measures  at  least  2J/£  inches  long  without  stretching,  it 


Fig.  84.     Grades  of  Combing  Wool. 

Fine  combing  at  left  and  half-blood  combing  at  right. 

grades  as  Delaine  on  the  wool  market.  The  same  sheep  west  of 
the  river  grows  a  fleece  that  grades  as  Fine  Staple  or  Fine  Medium 
Staple.  The  Fine  Staple  or  Fine  Medium  Staple  fleece  has  a 
greater  shrinkage  than  the  Delaine  fleece.  This  is  the  main 
distinction  between  the  two.  When  scoured,  the  wools  have 
much  the  same  value.  The  eastern  wool  may  be  somewhat 
stronger,  but  in  a  general  way  the  wool  is  the  same  in  both 
fleeces. 


264         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

If  a  Merino  sheep  in  the  east  grows  a  fleece  less  than 
inches  long,  it  grades  as  XX  or  X,  or  as  Fine  Unwashed.  Mar- 
ket usage  has  decreed  that  XX  and  X  as  grade  names  shall  be 
used  only  in  referring  to  washed  clothing  wools.  XX  is  a  some- 
what finer  wool  than  X.  Fine  Unwashed  corresponds  to  XX 
and  X,  but  shrinks  more  in  scouring.  The  same  sheep  in  the 
west  grows  a  fleece  that  grades  as  Fine  Clothing  or  Fine  Medium 
Clothing.  Fine  Clothing  corresponds  to  XX,  and  Fine  Medium 
Clothing  corresponds  to  X,  except  that  the  territory  wool  shrinks 
more  than  the  domestic. 

Similar  comparisons  might  be  made  for  the  half-blood 
grade,  the  three-eighths-blood  grade,  etc.  If  we  substitute  the 
general  term  "Fine"  for  all  the  grades  thus  far  discussed,  we  may 
say  that  each  class  of  wool  has  the  following  grades: 

Fine 

Half-blood 

Three-eighths-blood 

Quarter-blood 

Low  quarter-blood 

Low,  coarse,  common,  or  braid. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  American  wool  trade,  the  half- 
blood,  three-eighths-blood,  and  quarter-blood  grades  referred 
supposedly  to  wools  from  sheep  of  half,  three-eighths,  and  quar- 
ter Merino  blood,  but  they  have  no  such  significance  now.  Wools 
grading  as  high  as  half-blood  can  come  from  sheep  having  no 
trace  of  Merino  blood.  On  the  other  hand,  quarter-blood  would 
rarely  come  from  a  sheep  containing  any  Merino  blood.  Low 
quarter-blood  is  a  grade  lower  than  quarter-blood,  and  braid 
is  the  lowest  grade  of  all.  It  usually  refers  to  luster  wool  such 
as  might  come  from  a  Lincoln  or  a  Cotswold  sheep.  The  grading 
of  wool  in  the  wool  houses  is  done  by  expert  graders  who  know 
wools  so  well  that  at  a  glance  they  can  determine  the  grade  to 
which  the  wool  belongs  and  the  kind  of  material  into  which  the 
wool  will  be  made.  Many  of  these  wool  graders  may  never 
have  seen  a  sheep  in  fleece,  neither  do  they  know  the  breeds  of 
sheep  and  the  characteristic  .fleeces.  Hence,  the  wool  grade 
does  not  depend  upon  the  breed  of  sheep,  and  the  wool  from 
different  individuals  of  the  same  flock  and  breed  may  be  graded 
differently  Wool,  then,  is  graded  on  the  market  according  to 
its  merit,  regardless  of  the  breeding  of  the  sheep  which  grew  it, 
although  some  of  the  names  of  the  various  grades  may  seem  to 
indicate  the  breeding  of  the  sheep. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        265 

Half-blood  wool  approaches  fineness,  but  is  not  so  finely 
crimped  as  the  fine  grade.  It  is  also  somewhat  longer  in  its  class, 
and  usually  shrinks  less  in  its  class.  Three-eighths-blood  has 
a  tendency  toward  the  coarser  wool.  It  is  less  crimped  than 
half-blood  and  less  elastic.  It  also  shrinks  less  when  scoured 
because  it  is  less  oily  as  a  rule.  Quarter-blood  represents  the 
next  step  down  the  scale  in  fineness  and  crimp,  with  still  less 


Fig.  85.     Grades  of  Combing  Wool. 

Three-eighths-blood  combing  at  left  and  quarter-blood  combing  at  right. 

shrinkage.  It  is  longer  than  three-eighths-blood.  Practically 
all  three-eighths-blood  and  quarter-blood  wools  are  of  combing 
length.  Braid  wool  varies  from  4^  inches  up  to  12  or  13  inches 
in  length.  Its  name  comes  from  the  fact  that  it  is  particularly 
suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  braids.  It  is  generally  used, 


Fig.  86.     Grades  of  Combing  Wool. 

Low  quarter-blood  combing  at  right  and  braid  wool  at  left. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         267 

however,  in  fabrics  requiring  long  and  coarse  fibers.  For  bunt- 
ing or  flags  there  is  no  other  wool  its  equal.  Because  of  its 
length  arid  coarseness  it  does  not  appear  as  one  of  the  grades  of 
clothing  wool. 

The  foregoing  statements  regarding  the  comparative  lengths 
and  shrinkages  of  the  various  grades  of  wool  may  be  illustrated 
by  the  following  table*  giving  the  most  acceptale  length  and 
the  estimated  average  shrinkage  of  each  grade  of  Montana 
combing  wools: 

Acceptable  length 

for  an  average  Shrinkage — 

Grade                                                         grade — inches.  Percent. 

Fine  and  Fine  Medium 2^  64-65 

Half-blood 2%  61-62 

Three-eighths-blood 3^  55-57 

Quarter-blood 4  51-53 

Braid 4^-13  46-48 

Classes  and  grades  of  wool  from  various  breeds  of  sheep.— 

The  following  listt  shows  in  a  general  way  how  wool  from  the 
various  breeds  would  be  likely  to  grade.  This  table  is  presented 
because  it  will  be  of  interest  and  because  it  will  assist  the  reader 
who  knows  the  fleeces  characteristic  of  some  or  all  of  the  breeds 
of  sheep,  but  does  not  know  the  characteristics  of  the  classes 
and  grades  of  wool,  to  gain  a  clearer  understanding  of  the 
latter. 

Breed  Class  and  Grade  of  wool  produced 

Merino  (eastern  states) Delaine,  XX,  X,  or  fine  unwashed. 

Merino  (range  states) Fine  and  fine  medium  staple  or  clothing. 

Rambouillet Fine  and  fine  medium  staple  or  clothing  and 

a  small  amount  of  half-blood. 

Southdown Half  and  three-eights-blood  (chiefly  three- 
eighths  combing  or  clothing,  chiefly  cloth- 
ing.) 

Shropshire Mainly  three-eighths-blood,  combing  or  cloth- 
ing. Some  quarter-blood. 

Hampshire  Three-eighths  and  quarter-blood  combing  or 

clothing. 

Dorset Three-eighths  and  quarter-blood  combing  or 

clothing. 

Suffolk Three-eighths-blood  combing  and  clothing. 

Cheviot Quarter-blood  combing. 

Oxford Quarter  and  low  quarter-blood  combing. 

Corriedale Three-eighths-blood  combing. 

Cptswold ] 

Lincoln j^Low  quarter-blood  combing  or  braid. 

Leicester. . 


*Compiled  from  Nat'l.  Wool  Warehouse  &  Storage  Go's.  Bulletin,  Dec., 
1915. 

fU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206. 


268 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Sorting  wool. — The  wool  manufacturer  buys  from  the  wool 
dealer  the  grade  of  wool  which  he  desires  and  thus  secures  fleeces 
which  have  a  certain  average  degree  of  fineness.  However, 
each  fleece  varies  more  or  less  in  fineness.  Wool  from  the  lower 
thighs,  called  the  "britch,"  is  usually  the  coarsest  part  of  the 
fleece.  The  shoulder  wool  is  best  in  strength,  quality,  and 
length;  the  sides  are  next  best,  and  quality  decreases  passing 
backward  to  the  britch.  Wool  from  the  back  is  likely  to  con- 
tain hayseed  and  chaff.  The  belly  wool  is  finer  than  any,  but 
is  short,  frowzy,  not  so  strong,  and  lacks  character.  A  "frowzy" 
wool  is  one  that  appears  lifeless,  and  is  badly  mussed,  the  fibers 
and  locks  lying  topsy  turvy.  The  wool  from  the  head  is  short, 
coarse,  and  in  dark-faced  breeds  is  likely  to  contain  black  fibers. 
A  fleece  may  be  three-eighths-blood  or  half-blood  on  the  shoulder, 
while  the  britch  would  be  quarter-blood.  For  these  reasons, 
the  wool  manufacturer  usually  sorts  the  wool  which  he  buys. 
The  fleece  is  untied,  shaken  out,  and  thrown  upon  a  table  having 
a  slatted  or  wire-mesh  top  so  that  the  loose  dirt  in  the  fleece 
will  fall  through. 

The  following  table  giving  the  results  of  an  actual  case  of 
sorting  a  bag  of  wool  will  be  of  interest.*  This  bag  contained 
fleeces  that  had  been  graded  in  the  warehouse  as  half-blood. 
The  gross  weight  was  245  pounds;  weight  of  bag,  4J4  pounds; 
net  weight  of  wool,  240 %  pounds. 

Results  of  sorting  a  bag  of  half-blood  Montana  wool. 


Sort 

Weight 

Percentage 

Value  per 
pound 

Regular  sorts: 
X  or  three-quarters-blood 

Pounds 
11  21 

Per  cent. 
4  66 

Cents 
21  0 

Half-blood  combing  

88.69 

36.84 

22.7 

Half-blood  clothing  

12.90 

5.36 

21.6 

Three-eighths-blood  combing  ........ 
Three-eighths-blood  clothing  

64.76 
24.33 

26.90 
10.11 

23.0 
20.0 

Quarter-blood  combing 

12  90 

5  36 

19  0 

Short  quarter-blood 

4  55 

1  89 

17  0 

Low  quarter-blood 

55 

23 

16  0 

Off  sorts: 
Stained  and  gray 

55 

23 

14  0 

Shorts 

3  90 

1  62 

10  0 

Fribs     . 

3  32 

1  38 

5.0 

Clips. 

2  76 

1.15 

1.0 

String                                  

1.37 

.57 

Loss  in  sorting  .  . 

8.90 

3.70 

*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        269 

The  stained  and  gray  sort  is  not  usually  made  unless  white 
goods  are  to  be  manufactured.  Shorts  consist  of  short  wool 
such  as  grows  about  the  face,  or  it  may  be  due  to  double  cutting 
in  shearing.  Fribs  are  short,  sweaty,  and  dungy  locks.  Clips 
are  locks  so  incrusted  with  foreign  material  that  they  cannot 
be  scoured  clean,  but  must  be  clipped  off.  The  string  is  that 
used  in  tying  the  fleeces.  Loss  of  weight  in  sorting  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  sand  and  loose  dirt  in  the  wool. 

Other  off  sorts  are  often  made  from  wools  of  various  sec- 
tions. Some  of  these  are  tags,  paint  locks,  and  seedy.  Tags 
are  large  dung  locks  which  are  badly  stained  and  have  a  very 
high  shrinkage.  Paint  locks  require  clipping  off  the  painted 
ends  of  the  locks.  Seedy  wool  contains  weed  seeds,  soft  burs, 
etc.  It  must  often  be  carbonized  before  using,  as  explained 
in  a  later  paragraph. 

Wool  pulling. — Wool  pulleries  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups — those  owned  by  packers  and  forming  a  part  of  the  by- 
products division  of  packing  plants,  and  those  owned  and  oper- 
ated independent  of  packing  establishments.  The  wool  pullery 
of  a  packing  plant  receives  pelts  daily,  direct  from  the  killing 
floor.  They  are  at  once  placed  in  vats  of  cold  water,  which 
takes  out  all  of  the  animal  heat  and  removes  some  of  the  dirt 
and  blood.  The  soaking  continues  from  12  to  24  hours.  Pack- 
ing plants  not  equipped  with  pulleries  salt  their  pelts,  and  when 
a  quantity  has  accumulated  send  them  to  a  pullery.  Salted 
pelts  are  soaked  36  hours,  as  it  requires  considerable  time  to 
dissolve  the  salt  out  of  the  hide.  When  removed  from  the  vats, 
the  pelts  are  given  mechanical  treatment  in  a  scrubbing  machine 
which  washes  them  in  a  spray  of  water,  completing  the  removal 
of  dirt,  and  leaving  the  fleece  in  an  attractive,  white  condition. 
The  wet  pelts  are  then  put  in  a  centrifugal  wringer  which  throws 
out  the  water  to  such  an  extent  that  the  fleece  is  made  very 
nearly  dry.  The  pelts  are  next  taken  to  a  room  where  they  are 
spread,  fleece  downward,  upon  wire  screens  and  painted  on  the 
inner  surface  with  a  thick  liquid  bearing  the  trade  name  of 
' 'Depilatory/'  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  sodium  sulphide  and 
slaked  lime.  Within  2  to  4  hours  after  this  treatment  the  wool 
fibers  become  loosened  and  easily  part  from  the  hide,  coming 
out  by  the  roots  when  pulled. 

Before  pulling,  however,  the  pelts  are  taken  to  large  rooms 
where  they  are  spread  out  on  the  floor,  fleece  upwards,  being 
grouped  or  classified  according  to  the  nature  of  the  fleece.  The 


270         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

pelts  are  then  taken  up  and  the  wool  pulled  by  hand.  Coincident 
with  the  pulling  the  operator  sorts  the  wool.  Furthermore, 
the  pullery  keeps  each  month's  product  by  itself,  thus  multiply- 
ing the  assortments  by  twelve,  and  resulting  finally  in  over  two 
hundred  kinds  of  pulled  wool,  each  having  a  distinct  trade  name. 

Wool  pulleries  report  a  strong  demand  from  wool  manu- 
facturers for  black  wool  which  is  used  to  produce  various  shades 
of  natural  gray  by  mixing  it  with  white  wool.  Black  wool  thus 
sells  at  a  premium,  for  the  supply  is  small.  Pelts  that  vary  in 
color  through  various  shades  of  gray  and  brown  are  not  in  the 
class  of  black  pelts  because  the  varying  color  makes  them  an 
unknown  quantity  in  color  mixing  where  definite  results  are 
wanted.  Very  few  black  fleeces  are  uniformly  black.  They 
often  contain  white,  gray,  and  brown  fibers  mixed  with  the 
black.  This  explains  why  the  so-called  black  fleece  sells  at  a 
discount,  while  the  locks  of  black  wool  collected  by  the  wool 
pullery  bring  a  premium. 

The  growth  of  wool  must  be  at  least  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  before  it  may  be  profitably  pulled.  Some  pelts  are  not 
pulled,  no  matter  how  long  the  fleece  may  be,  because  the  wool 
is  not  saleable,  or  not  valuable  enough  to  pay  for  pulling. 

Scouring.— Scouring  is  the  first  process  in  wool  manufac- 
turing. The  purpose  of  the  scouring  process  is  the  removal  of 
dirt  and  grease  from  the  wool.  It  does  not  remove  paint,  burs, 
seeds,  chaff,  nor  twine.  Paint  is  clipped  from  the  wool  before 
scouring.  If  the  grease  wool  comes  to  the  scouring  plant  in 
bales,  it  is  first  put  through  a  shredding  machine  which  loosens 
it.  This  machine  is  equipped  with  a  blower  for  the  removal 
of  dust,  and  a  screen  for  the  removal  of  heavy  dirt.  Scouring 
is  accomplished  by  passing  the  wool  through  a  series  of  four 
bowls  or  vats,  each  containing  a  different  liquor.  These  liquors 
are  composed  as  follows: 

Bowl  No.  1 — Mild  alkaline  solution,  preferably  potassium;  temperature 

130  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
Bowl  No.  2 — Same  alkaline  solution  as  first  bowl,  plus  soap;  should  be 

a  potash  soap;  temperature  120  degrees. 
Bowl  No.  3 — Soap  solution  only;  temperature  110  degrees. 
Bowl  No.  4 — Luke  warm  water. 

Nearly  all  the  yolk  or  grease  is  removed  from  the  wool  in 
the  first  bowl,  This  is  done  by  the  saponification  of  the  oil* 
the  soap  readily  dissolving  in  the  warm  liquid.  The  action  of 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        271 

the  soap  in  the  second  and  third  bowls  is  to  whiten  the  wool 
and  give  it  "life"  which  it  loses  in  bowl  No.  1.  After  rinsing  in 
the  fourth  bowl,  the  wool  is  passed  through  a  dryer. 

During  treatment  in  the  bowls,  automatic  rakes  keep  the 
wool  moving  slowly,  for  if  it  is  moved  rapidly  through  the  liquids 
it  forms  a  ropy  mass.  The  yolk  forms  an  emulsion  in  the  bowls 
and  may  be  recovered  by  chemical  processes.  It  is  known  as 
"lanolin,"  and  is  much  used  in  salves  and  ointments.  Clipped 
wools  shrink  as  much  as  65  per  cent,  or  more  in  scouring,  while 
pulled  wools  shrink  about  27  per  cent,  on  the  average  and  often 
shrink  only  10  per  cent.  The  difference  is  due  to  the  very 
thorough  washing  given  to  pelts  before  pulling. 

Carbonization. — Burs  and  much  other  vegetable  matter 
»cannot  be  taken  from  wool  in  scouring.  In  the  combing  process, 
by  which  worsteds  are  made,  this  vegetable  matter  is  combed 
out  with  the  noils  (short  fibers  not  suitable  for  worsted  yarn). 
It  can  be  eliminated  from  the  noils  or  from  clothing  wools  in- 
tended for  carding  or  woolen  purposes  only  by  carbonization. 
This  consists  in  immersing  the  wool  in  a  dilute  sulphuric  acid 
or  aluminum  chloride  solution,  and  then  drying  it  at  about 
200°F.  This  chars  the  burs  and  vegetable  matter  which  are 
then  removed  by  crushing  and  dusting  with  little  or  no  change 
in  the  wool  fiber.  The  process  costs  from  1 J^  to  3  cents  a  pound 
and  results  in  an  average  loss  of  about  10  per  cent,  in  weight. 
Thus  we  see  why  the  manufacturer  and  the  wool  dealer  have  a 
right  to  object  to  burry  wool,  and  why  they  offer  a  much  lower 
price  for  it  than  for  clean  wool. 

Wool  clip  of  world. — Australia  and  New  Zealand  combined 
produce  about  25  per  cent,  of  the  world's  wool  clip,  the  Russian 
Empire  15  per  cent.,  the  United  States  12  per  cent.,  Argentina 
6  per  cent.,  the  Union  of  South  Africa  6  per  cent.,  Uruguay  5 
per  cent.,  The  United  Kingdom  4.5  per  cent.,  Turkey  in  Asia 
3.3  per  cent.,  and  France  2.8  per  cent. 

American  wools  and  wool  growing. — American  sheep  are 
said  to  have  no  superior  in  constitutional  vigor  and  strength 
of  wool  fiber.  The  average  weight  of  fleece  of  American  sheep 
has  shown  much  improvement.  In  1840  it  was  only  1.9  pounds; 
in  1850  it  was  2.4  pounds;  in  1860  it  was  2.7  pounds;  in  1870 
it  was  3.5  pounds;  in  1880  it  was  4.4  pounds;  in  1890  it  was 
4.8  pounds;  in  1900  it  was  6  pounds;  in  1910  it  was  6.7  pounds; 
in  1918  it  was  7.1  pounds.  The  annual  wool  clip  since  1840  is 
shown  by  the  following  figures: 


272 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


1840. . 
1850.  . 
1860 . . 
1870 . . 
1880 . . 
1890 . . 
1900 . . 
1910.. 
1918.. 


.  35,802,114 
.  52,516,959 
.  60,264,913 
.162,000,000 
.232,500,000 
.276,000,000 
.288,636,621 
.336,896,903 
.257,921,000 


pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 


According  to  the  estimates  of  the  National  Association  of 
Wool  Manufacturers,  the  leading  states  in  number  of  sheep, 
average  weight  of  fleece,  and  pounds  of  wool  produced  during 
1918  were  as  follows: 


States 

Number 
of 
fleeces 

Average 
weight 
of  fleece 

Wool 
product, 
raw 

Per  cent, 
of 

shrinkage 

Scoured 
wool 

1  .   Wyoming  .  .  . 
2  .   Montana  .... 
3  .   Idaho  

4,051,000 
2,847,000 
2,468,000 

Lbs. 
8.4 
8.2 
7.9 

Lbs. 
34,026,000 
23,342,000 
19,500,000 

67 
64 
63 

Lbs. 

11,228,580 
8,403,120 
7,215,000 

4  .   Ohio  
5  .  Utah  
6.  New  Mexico. 
.  7  .   California  .  .  . 
8.    Michigan.  .  .  . 
9  .   Oregon  
10.  Texas  

1,726,000 
2,052,000 
3,059,000 
1,792,000 
1,184,000 
1,562,000 
1,607,000 

7.3 
7.7 
5.6 
7.0 
7.4 
8.0 
7.0 

12,600,000 
15,800,000 
17,132,000 
12,545,000 
8,765,000 
12,500,000 
11,250,000 

53 
65 
68 
64 
50 
67 
67 

5,922,000 
5,530,000 
5,482,240 
4,526,200 
4,382,500 
4,125,000 
3,712,500 

This  table  brings  out  some  important  distinctions  in  wools. 
The  figures  for  shrink  are  interesting;  the  western  states  exceed 
the  eastern  states  by  13  to  17  per  cent.,  due  to  the  greater  per- 
centage of  Merino  blood  in  range  flocks  and  hence  a  more  greasy 
wool  with  a  greater  shrink.  Western  wools  also  contain  more 
sand  and  dirt.  The  introduction  of  mutton  sheep  into  the  corn- 
belt  has  decreased  the  average  weight  of  fleece,  but  has  im- 
proved the  shrinkage.  The  entire  clip  of  the  United  States  is 
estimated  to  shrink  60.8  per  cent.  Wool  buyers  fix  the  price 
on  a  scoured  basis,  this  being  the  fairest  method  of  dealing  and 
also  the  fairest  basis  on  which  to  compare  production  by  states. 
Wyoming  has  the  most  sheep,  and  Rhode  Island  the  fewest. 
Washington  has  the  highest  average  weight  of  fleece,  which  is 
8.6  pounds,  and  Georgia  is  lowest  with  2.9  pounds.  Virginia 
has  the  lowest  per  cent,  of  shrinkage,  which  is  38  per  cent.,  and 
Nevada  with  70  per  cent,  has  the  most. 

Imports  and  exports  of  wool. — During  the  fiscal  year,  1913- 
'14,  the  United  States  imported  195,293,255  pounds  of  wool 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        273 

valued  at  $35,579,823.  The  average  value  per  pound  would 
thus  be  18.1  cents.  We  export  less  than  100,000  pounds  of  wool 
annually.  American  wool  growers  produce  slightly  more  than 
one-half  of  the  wool  used  by  American  wool  manufacturers. 
Australia  is  the  largest  exporter  of  wool,  the  figure  for  the  cal- 
endar year,  1912,  being  693,496,000  pounds;  Argentina  ranked 
second  with  363,680,000  pounds;  South  Africa  was  third  with 
185,471,000  pounds;  and  New  Zealand  was  fourth  with  175,982,000 
pounds.  The  four  countries  mentioned  furnish  over  three- 
fifths  of  the  exports  of  the  world.  The  principal  importing  and 
wool-manufacturing  countries  are  France,  Great  Britain,  Ger- 
many, United  States,  and  Belgium,  in  the  order  named.  These 
five  countries  annually  consume  over  four-fifths  of  the  total 
imports  of  the  world. 

Principal  American  wool  markets. — The  principal  wool 
markets  in  the  United  States  are  Boston,  Chicago,  Philadelphia, 
St.  Louis,  and  New  York.  During  the  past  few  years  Boston 
has  handled  nearly  75  per  cent,  of  the  total  wool  crop  of  this 
country,  and  nearly  60  per  cent,  of  the  foreign  wool  shipped  into 
this  country.  Wool  is  purchased  from  the  producer  by  different 
methods  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  clip.  Domestic  wools 
are  largely  sold  to  local  wool  buyers  who  take  the  whole  clip 
of  the  neighborhood  regardless  of  quality  or  cleanliness.  Some- 
times the  country  storekeeper  buys  wool  and  resells  to  the 
travelling  buyer.  Cooperative  wool-selling  agencies  have  been 
formed  in  certain  localities,  particularly  in  Minnesota  and  Wis- 
consin. The  advantages  of  these  organizations  are  discussed 
in  a  later  paragraph.  Territory  wools  are  sold  mostly  to  buyers 
representing  eastern  wool  dealers.  In  a  few  cases  they  are  sold 
to  buyers  representing  manufacturers.  The  western  wool 
grower  may  also  consign  his  clip  to  a  commission  house  to  be 
stored  and  sold  for  a  certain  commission  charge. 

Factors  that  determine  the  value  of  wool. — The  value  of 
wool  depends  upon,  certain  well-established  factors,  many  of 
which  have  been  indicated  and  discussed  in  the  foregoing  para- 
graphs on  wools  and  wool  manufacture.  Following  is  a  list  of 
these  factors.* 

1.  Shrinkage. — American  wools  may  shrink  from  25  to  80 
per  cent.  The  loss  in  scouring  is  a  complete  loss  to  the  manu- 
facturer. Grease  wools  are  valued  on  a  scoured  basis.  Sand, 


*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206. 


274 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


dust,  dirt,  burs,  and  seeds  lower  the  yield  and  affect  the  value 
of  the  clean  wool.  The  following  table  shows  the  important 
part  that  shrinkage  plays  in  fixing  prices.  At  the  top  are  various 
prices  per  pound  of  clean  or  scoured  wool.  In  the  column  to 
the  left  are  various  percentages  of  shrinkage.  By  the  use  of  this 
table  we  find,  for  example,  that  if  clean  wool  is  worth  $1.00  per 
pound  and  the  shrinkage  is  65  per  cent.,  the  wool  is  worth  35 
cents  in  the  grease,  whereas,  if  the  shrinkage  is  60  per  cent., 
the  grease  wool  is  worth  40  cents. 

Relative  prices  of  scoured  and  raw  wool  at  varying  percentages  of  shrinkage. 


Shrinkage 

Price  of  clean  or  scoured  wool  (cents) 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

110 

120 

130 

140 

150 

per  cent. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

25 

23 

30 

38 

45 

53 

60 

68 

75 

83 

90 

98 

105 

113 

30 

21 

28 

35 

42 

49 

56 

63 

70 

77 

84 

91 

98 

105 

35 

20 

26 

33 

39 

46 

52 

59 

65 

72 

78 

85 

91 

98 

40 

18 

24 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

78 

84 

90 

45 

17 

22 

28 

33 

39 

44 

50 

55 

61 

66 

72 

77 

83 

50 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

55 

14 

18 

23 

27 

32 

36 

41 

45 

50 

54 

59 

63 

68 

60 

12 

16 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

60 

65 

11 

14 

18 

21 

25 

28 

32 

35 

39 

42 

46 

49 

53 

70 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

33 

36 

39 

42 

45 

75 

8 

10 

13 

15 

18 

20 

23 

25 

28 

30 

33 

35 

38 

80 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

2.  Class    and    grade    of   the    wool. — Ordinarily   combing 
wools  are  worth  about  10  per  cent,  more  than  the  short  or  cloth- 
ing wools. 

3.  Character  in  wool. — This  refers  to  the  color  or  white- 
ness of  the  fiber,  the  soundness,  luster,  evenness  of  distribution 
of  yolk,  and  the  degree  of  crimp  which  gives  elasticity  to  the 
fiber.    A  fine  Merino  fiber  may  be  easily  stretched  by  hand 
30  per  cent,  beyond  its  crimped  length,  and  by  gradual  pressure 
on  a  machine  fully  that  much  more.    A  white  fiber  may  be 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  white  cloth,  or  may  be  dyed  any 
desired  color.     Black,  brown,  or  gray  wool  can  be  used  only  in 
dark-colored  fabrics,  and  furthermore  it  is  difficult  to  stain  these 
wools  exactly  the  same  shade  as  white  wool.     Kemp,  which  are 
hair-like  fibers,  found  mostly  on  the  thighs  of  coarse-wooled 
sheep,  will  absorb  little  dye,  if  any  at  all,  and  fleeces  containing 
kemp  are  discriminated  against  as  lacking  in  character.     In 
kemp  the  outer  scales  lie  so  closely  against  the  body  of  the 
fiber  that  the  dye  cannot  penetrate.     The  body  of  the  fiber 
alone  absorbs  the  dye. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        275 

4.  Strength  of  fiber. — Tender  spots  and  breaks  affect  the 
value  of  the  wool,  may  change  its  class  or  grade,  and  lessen  the 
strength  of  the  yarn. 

5.  Use   of  paint   for   branding   sheep. — This  lowers   the 
value  of  the  fleece,  necessitates  an  extra  sort  at  the  mill,  and 
requires  that  the  painted  ends  be  clipped  off  the  fibers  before 
scouring. 

6.  Tags. — These  are  worth  about  one-third  as  much  as 
good  wool.    At  time  of  shearing  they  should  be  sacked  separate- 
ly.    They  are  objectionable  in  the  fleece  because  they  shrink 


Fig.  87.     Tender  Wool  Showing  Break. 

much  more  in  scouring  than  the  rest  of  the  fleece,  and  are  liable 
to  stain  the  surrounding  wool,  especially  when  wet. 

7.  Wet  wool. — In  wet  wool  the  fibers  may  be  weakened, 
and  there  is  danger  of  spontaneous  combustion.     It  may  also 
cause  staining,  especially  when  tags  are  present. 

8.  Burso — As   has   been   pointed   out,    burs   cause   much 
trouble  and  extra  expense  in  manufacture,  and  hence  lower  the 
value  of  the  fleece  considerably. 

9.  Improper  tying. — The  fleece  should  be  tied  so  that  no 
locks  or  pieces  fall  out.     These  are  difficult  to  sort  and  buyers 
object  to  them  when  present  in  large  quantities.    The  use  of 


276        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

sisal  or  binder  twine  is  seriously  objected  to  by  dealers  and 
manufacturers  because  the  fibers  of  the  twine  shred  off  and 
become  mixed  with  the  wool  and  blemish  the  fabrics  made  from 
it.  A  small,  light  twine  of  twisted  paper,  especially  intended 
for  the  use  of  wool  growers,  is  now  on  the  market  and  should  be 
used  exclusively. 

10.  Buck  fleeces. — These  contain  more  grease  than  other 
fleeces  and  hence  shrink  more  in  scouring.     They  should  be 
kept  separate. 

11.  Black  wool. — A  black  fleece  packed  with  white  ones 
is  almost  certain  to  contaminate  the  latter  due  to  some  of  the 
black  fibers  becoming  mixed  in  the  white.     Black  wool  should 
be  packed  separately.    Black  fleeces  sell  at  a  discount  because 
they  are  usually  not  an  even  black,  but  contain  white,  gray, 
and  brown  fibers,  often  more  of  these  than  of  black. 

12.  Cotted  or  matted  fleeces. — It  is  necessary  to  run  these 
through  an  opener,  which  is  not  done  with  ordinary  wool. 

13.  Hand  and  machine  shearing. — Machine  shearing  re- 
sults in  a  heavier  fleece,  longer  fibers,  and  freedom  from  second 
cuts.     Machine  shearing  may  even  result  in  changing  the  class 
from  clothing  to  combing. 

14.  Packing  wool. — Lamb,  ewe,  and  wether  fleeces  should 
be  packed  in  separate  bags  if  possible.    Lambs'  wool  is  usually 
more  valuable  because  of  lighter  shrinkage.     Sewing  bags  with 
sisal  or  other  unsuitable  twine  creates  a  bad  impression.    The 
bag  should  be  sewed  securely  with  a  stout,  hard-finished  twine 
so  as  not  to  burst  open. 

Marketing  wool  properly. — Poor  methods  of  sheep  hus- 
bandry annually  result  in  the  loss  of  many  thousands  of  dollars 
to  wool  growers.  Neglect  of  flocks  in  winter,  filthy  conditions 
of  keep,  carelessness  in  handling,  weedy  pastures,  the  use  of  oil 
paint  or  tar  to  mark  sheep,  failure  to  separate  the  tags  when  the 
sheep  are  shorn,  and  improper  tying  of  fleeces  are  factors  which 
greatly  lessen  the  returns  to  wool  producers.  The  loss  is  large 
because  of  the  presence  in  fleeces  of  seeds,  burs,  dust,  chaff, 
sand,  manure,  and  other  foreign  material,  and  because  unneces- 
sary quantities  of  unreasonably  large  twine  are  used,  or  because 
a  kind  of  twine  is  used  that  injures  the  cloth  made  from  the 
wool.  Sometimes  there  is  enough  twine  around  one  fleece  to 
tie  a  half-dozen  or  more  fleeces.  Even  baling  wire  has  been  used 
in  some  instances. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        277 

The  Animal  Husbandry  Division  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry*  suggests  the  following  rules  as  of  fundamental 
importance  in  the  improvement  of  American  wools: 

1.  Adhere  to  a  settled  policy  of  breeding  the  type  of  sheep 
suitable  to  the  locality. 

2.  Sack  lambs',  ewes',  wethers',  and  all  buck  or  very  oily 
fleeces  separately. 

3.  Shear  all  black  sheep  at  one  time,  preferably  last,   and 
put  the  wool  in  separate  sacks. 

4.  Remove  and  sack  separately  all  tags,  and  then  allow 
no  tag  discount  upon  the  clip  as  a  whole. 

5.  Have  slatted  floors  in  the  holding  pens. 

6.  Use  a  smooth,  light,  and  hard  glazed  (preferably  paper) 
twine. 

7.  Securely  knot  the  string  on  each  fleece. 

8.  Turn  sacks  wrong  side  out  and  shake  well  before  filling. 

9.  Keep  wool  dry  at  all  times. 

10.  Make  the  brands  on  the  sheep  as  small  as  possible 
and  avoid  tar  brands. 

11.  Know  the  grade  and  value  of  your  wool  and  price  it 
accordingly. 

12.  Do  not  sweat  sheep  excessively  before  shearing. 

13.  Keep  the  floor  sweepings  out  of  the  wool. 

14.  Do  not  sell  the  wool  before  it  is  grown. 

15.  When  all  these  rules  are  followed  place  your  personal 
brand  or  your  name  upon  the  bags  or  bales. 

The  Australian  plan  of  handling  the  wool  clip  has  recently 
been  strongly  advocated  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
and  has  already  been  adopted  by  a  few  ranchmen  in  Wyoming, 
Montana,  and  Nevada,  tinder  this  plan  the  wool  is  graded  at 
time  of  shearing,  resulting  in  standard  grades  of  wool  which  may 
be  bought  and  sold  like  any  other  standard  commodities.  The 
belly  wool  is  separated  from  the  fleece  by  the  shearer,  and  all 
bellies  from  the  same  kind  of  sheep  are  baled  together.  The 
ileece,  minus  the  belly,  is  thrown  spread  out  upon  a  table  having 
a  slatted  top  to  allow  loose,  heavy  pieces  of  wool  and  dirt  to 
reach  the  floor.  The  fleece  is  then  "skirted."  This  consists 
in  removing  some  of  the  wool  from  the  edges  of  the  fleece.  In 
-cross-bred  sheep  and  in  some  Merinos  the  lower  thigh  wool  is 
materially  coarser  than  the  body  of  the  fleece,  and  when  this  is 

*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  206. 


278         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

removed,  an  even  quality  of  wool  is  left  in  the  fleece.  The 
fleece  is  then  graded  into  one  of  several  grades  according  to 
length,  fineness,  shrinkage,  and  character.  The  fleece  is  not 
tied  before  baling.  When  opened  in  the  East  the  wool  has  lost 
nothing  by  baling  and  makes  a  good  appearance. 

The  Australian  system,  so-called  because  it  is  universally 
practiced  by  Australian  wool  growers,  is  educational  to  the 
western  wool  grower  who  learns  much  regarding  the  kinds  and 
values  of  wools  produced  by  his  sheep,  and  it  eliminates  the 
usual  further  handling  undergone  by  most  clips  in  dealers'  ware- 
houses before  sale  to  manufacturers  is  attempted.  Many 
growers  realize  for  the  first  time  the  great  amount  of  clothing 
wool  they  are  producing  and  realize  as  well  the  variety  of  grades 
of  wool  that  come  from  sheep  of  supposedly  uniform  type  but 
in  the  breeding  of  which  they  had  not  adhered  to  a  distinct 
standard  of  fleece  in  the  selection  of  rams. 

Advantage  of  pooling  farm-grown  wools. — During  the  last 
few  years  a  few  counties  in  the  farming  states  have  marketed 
their  wools  through  their  farm  bureaus  on  a  pooling  basis.  In 
1915,  Otsego  County,  N.  Y.,  pooled  and  sold  20,000  pounds  of 
wool  at  an  advance  of  4^  cents  per  pound  over  prices  offered 
at  the  same  time  by  the  local  dealers.  Because  of  the  success 
of  this  method  of  marketing,  Ohio  and  Iowa  have  organized 
state  wool  growers'  associations  with  the  object  of  pooling  all 
the  wool  of  the  state.  The  plan  is  meeting  with  marked  success. 
Under  this  plan  of  selling  collectively  small  lots  of  farm  wools, 
it  becomes  practicable  to  do  the  grading  needed  to  secure  fair 
prices  to  all  members.  The  farmer  who  produces  a  good  clip 
of  wool  will  receive  a  just  price  instead  of  the  usual  flat  price 
offered  by  the  local  dealer  for  all  fleeces,  good,  bad,  and  indif- 
ferent. 

Mohair. — This  is  the  product  of  the  Angora  goat.  The  fiber 
is  coarse,  very  long,  exceedingly  lustrous,  and  has  very  little 
crimp.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  braids,  felts,  linings, 
and  plushes.  It  is  also  used  extensively  as  a  substitute  for 
human  hair  in  switches  and  wigs. 


PART  THREE. 
SWINE. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  hog  is  universally  known  as  the  "Mortgage  Lifter." 
No  other  animal  has  contributed  more  toward  the  success  of 
farming  in  the  United  States.  This  country  leads  the  world 
in  hog  breeding  and  pork  production.  The  money-making 
ability  of  the  hog  is  based  on  the  following  advantages  of  the 
hog  and  of  hog  raising: 

1.  Hogs  are  the  most  efficient  converters  of  grain  and 
certain  other  feeds  into  meat.     They  make  larger  gains  in  weight 
in  proportion  to  feed  consumed  than  other  farm  animals. 

2.  They  are  most  prolific,  commonly  farrowing  from  6  to 
10  pigs,  and  will  raise  two  litters  per  year. 

3.  Returns  come  quickly.    The  pigs  may  be  marketed 
within  ten  months  after  the  sows  are  bred.     The  sow  may  be 
bred  when  eight  months  old,  farrowing  her  first  litter  at  twelve 
months  of  age. 

4.  Of  all  meat-producing  farm  animals,  the  pig  is  best 
adapted  to  diversified  and  intensified  farming  where  a  large 
income  is  desired  from  a  small  acreage. 

5.  The  hog.  has  a  higher  dressing  percentage  than  any 
other  animal,  and  a  larger  proportion  of  the  live  weight  is  edible 
than  of  any  other  animal. 

6.  Pork  is  the  most  nutritious  meat  and  has  better  curing 
and  keeping  qualities  than  any  other  meat. 

7.  No  other  animal  equals  the  hog  in  its  fat-storing  ability, 
and  hog  fat  is  the  most  valuable  fat  produced  by  domestic 
animals. 

8.  Hogs  are  the  most  efficient  farm  animals  in  converting 
certain  wastes  and  by-products  into  profits.     This  statement 
applies  to  grain  wasted  by  fattening  cattle,  utilization  of  garbage, 
and  utilization  of  dairy  by-products  such  as  skim  milk.     In  some 
wooded  sections  of  the  country,  pigs  convert  acorns,  other  mast, 
and  roots  into  saleable  form. 

279 


280         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

9.  Hog  raising  requires  a  smaller  investment  in  animals 
and  equipment  and  yields  quicker  and  relatively  larger  results 
than  any  other  branch  of  animal  husbandry. 

Swine  are  useful  as  a  source  of  meat  and  lard.  Some  swine 
produce  meat  only,  and  some  produce  lard  as  well  as  meat. 
Differences  in  the  demands  of  consumers  of  pork,  together  with 
differences  in  the  kinds  of  feed  available  for  pork  production, 
have  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  two  distinct  types  of  swine 
— lard  type  and  bacon  type.  The  lard  hog  is  an  American  pro- 
duction found  chiefly  in  the  cornbelt  states  where  corn  is  the 
principal  feed  for  all  farm  animals.  Corn  is  a  great  fattening 
feed,  and  when  fed  to  hogs  it  is  converted  into  fat  from  which 
lard  is  made.  Breeders  have  therefore  developed  a  type  of  hog 
specially  adapted  to  converting  feed,  principally  corn,  into  fat, 
and  at  the  same  time  growing  a  carcass  highly  valued  for  the 
various  cuts  of  meat  which  it  yields. 

The  bacon  hog  is  also  found  in  America,  principally  in 
Canada,  however,  which  is  outside  the  cornbelt.  In  Canada 
the  feeds  available  for  pork  production  are  peas,  barley,  wheat, 
oats,  rye,  skim  milk,  and  roots.  As  compared  with  corn,  these 
feeds  are  not  so  fattening;  they  are  muscle  builders,  and  hogs 
produced  with  such  feeds  take  on  relatively  little  fat  and  are  not 
useful  as  a  source  of  lard.  Canadians  have  made  no  effort  to 
compete  with  the  hogs  of  the  cornbelt;  instead  they  produce 
a  hog  suitable  for  the  English  and  Canadian  trade — a  hog  whose 
carcass  yields  the  largest  proportion  of  high-grade  bacon. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  may  appear  that  there  is  no 
real  hereditary  difference  in  the  temperaments  and  make-ups 
of  the  two  types  of  hogs,  but  that  the  differences  between  them 
are  solely  the  result  of  differences  in  the  feeds  upon  which  they 
are  produced.  This  is  largely  true,  yet  it  is  a  fact  that  when 
pigs  of  the  bacon  type  are  brought  into  the  cornbelt  and  fed 
along  with  lard  hogs,  they  never  entirely  lose  the  bacon  type; 
and  when  the  lard  hog  is  taken  into  a  bacon-producing  section 
and  fed  with  bacon  hogs,  there  is  the  same  degree  of  change, 
but  the  lard  hog  does  not  lose  his  identity  under  such  a  system 
of  feeding.  Therefore  we  must  conclude  that  there  is  something 
besides  the  difference  in  the  feeds  which  accounts  for  the  two 
distinct  types;  in  other  words,  there  is  an  hereditary  difference 
between  the  two  kinds  of  swine. 

These  facts  in  regard  to  swine  are  no  more  unique  than 
the  results  of  efforts  by  some  men  to  produce  milk  from  beef 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        281 

cattle,  or  beef  from  dairy  cattle,  or  mutton  from  fine-wooled 
sheep.  In  such  instances,  we  find  dairy-bred  steers  tending 
toward  the  form  of  the  beef  animal,  we  find  beef  cattle  taking 
on  somewhat  the  appearance  of  the  dairy  animal,  and  we  find 
that  the  Merino  approaches  nearer  to  mutton  type.  Careful 
selection  and  breeding  and  the  establishment  of  definite  types 
of  animals  suitable  to  special  purposes  cannot  accomplish  the 
desired  ends  unaided.  The  feeding  and  care  must  receive  as 
much  attention  as  the  breeding.  No  matter  how  well  bred  an 
animal  may  be,  and  no  matter  how  great  may  be  its  tendency 
to  conform  to  a  given  type,  it  must  enjoy  a  favorable  environ- 
ment before  its  inherited  good  qualities  can  fully  assert  them- 
selves and  thereby  enable  the  animal  to  fulfill  its  mission. 

In  America  the  lard  type  of  swine  is  represented  by  the 
Poland-China,  Duroc-Jersey,  Chester  White,  Berkshire,  and 
Hampshire  breeds.  The  bacon  type  includes  two  breeds,  the 
Yorkshire  and  Tarn  worth.  The  Berkshire  and  Hampshire  do 
not  possess  true  fat  or  lard  type,  but  occupy  a  position  about 
midway  between  the  bacon  and  lard  types,  being  general-pur- 
pose breeds. 

Definition  of  Hog  Terms. 

Boar. — Breeding  male,  any  age. 

Sow. — The  female,  any  age. 

Gilt. — A  young  sow,  usually  under  twelve  months  and  before 
she  has  farrowed  a  litter. 

Barrow. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  when  a  young  pig.  The 
best  age  to  castrate  pigs  is  from  6  to  8  weeks  old,  before  weaning. 

Stag. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  when  mature  or  so  far  ad- 
vanced toward  maturity  that  masculinity  is  plainly  evident  in 
head,  neck,  and  forequarters.  This  constitutes  coarseness  in 
a  market  animal. 

Shote. — A  young  hog  weighing  from  100  to  150  pounds. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
THE  AMERICAN  OR  LARD-TYPE  HOG. 

The  United  States  has  created  comparatively  few  of  the 
breeds  now  found  within  her  borders.  By  the  time  this  coun- 
try reached  that  stage  in  her  live-stock  development  when  im- 
provement in  domestic  animals  became  imperative,  European 
nations  had  met  and  solved  a  similar  problem  by  the  creation 
of  numerous  useful  breeds.  It  was  but  natural,  therefore,  that 
many  of  these  foreign  breeds  were  imported  to  this  country, 
and  it  was  fortunate  indeed  that  most  of  them  proved  fully 
capable  of  fulfilling  the  requirements  of  our  stock  growers.  We 
were  thus  afforded  an  easy  short  cut  across  what  would  have 
been  a  long,  laborious  period  in  the  development  of  our  live- 
stock industry.  We  borrowed  whenever  such  procedure  was 
practicable,  and  the  fact  that  we  have  never  found  it  really 
necessary  to  create  a  breed  of  draft  or  carriage  horses,  beef, 
dairy,  or  dual-purpose  cattle,  mutton  sheep,  or  bacon  hogs  shows 
how  great  is  our  indebtedness  to  the  breeders  of  Europe. 

Our  needs  were  not  entirely  met,  however,  for  we  have 
created  a  breed  of  trotting  horses,  a  breed  of  saddle  horses,  a 
breed  of  fine-wooled  sheep,  and  a  number  of  breeds  of  lard-type 
swine.  We  have  also  found  it  necessary  to  modify  slightly 
some  of  the  breeds  we  have  adopted,  and  to  our  credit  it  may 
be  said  that  we  have  made  certain  changes  in  some  of  these 
adopted  breeds  which,  as  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  American 
conditions  and  requirements,  represent  decided  improvements. 
The  Polled  Shorthorn,  the  Polled  Hereford,  the  "American-type" 
Hereford,  and  the  "American-type"  Berkshire  are  examples  of 
such  modifications. 

The  extended  patronage  which  we  have  given  to  foreign 
stock  and  the  lack  of  necessity  for  developing  breeds  of  our 
own,  while  highly  advantageous,  has  tended  to  dim  our  own 
glory  as  a  live-stock  breeding  nation.  If,  because  of  this  fact, 
our  live-stock  industry  needs  a  redeeming  feature,  it  is  furnished 
by  the  creation  of  a  distinctly  American  type  of  hog,  which 
includes  several  breeds.  European  breeds  of  swine  proved  so 
fully  incompetent  to  make  pork  under  American  conditions  that 
our  breeders  found  it  necessary  to  create  distinctly  new  breeds 

282 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        283 

of  a  new  type,  and  this  work  has  been  so  well  done  as  to  give  us 
a  clear  title  to  the  distinction  of  leading  the  world  in  swine 
breeding  and  in  pork  production. 

Our  conditions  demand  a  type  of  swine  possessing  a  mod- 
erate degree  of  compactness  of  form,  great  breadth  of  back, 
much  fullness  of  ham,  medium  shortness  of  leg,  rapid  and  heavy 
fattening  qualities,  and  quickness  of  maturity.  Such  a  type 
has  been  developed  and  maintained  by  American  swine  breeders. 
On  account  of  its  heavy  and  easy  fattening  qualities,  it  is  com- 
monly referred  to  as  the  lard-type  hog.  Its  ability  to  assimilate 
the  carbohydrates  of  corn  and  build  up  a  valuable  fat  from  which 
lard  is  made  has  played  no  small  part  in  the  rapid  development 
of  American  agriculture  and  in  the  prosperity  of  our  farmers. 
"King  Corn  and  the  American  Hog"  have  always  constituted 
an  invincible  combination,  creating  a  channel  of  disposal  for  the 
former  in  the  early  days  when  there  was  a  great  surplus  of  that 
food  stuff,  and  supplying  the  people  of  this  country  with  highly 
palatable  and  nutritious  meat  at  a  moderate  price. 

The  following  description  applies  particularly  to  the  fat 
barrow  raised  and  fattened  for  the  market.  The  type  desired 
in  lard  hogs  for  breeding  purposes  is  described  in  Chapter 
XXVI. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  lard-type  hog  fattened  for 
the  market  embodies  a  broad,  deep,  fairly  compact,  and  rather 
short-legged  conformation,  together  with  great  smoothness. 
Both  the  head  and  neck  are  short  and  wide,  the  top  is  very  broad 
and  slightly  arched,  the  sides  are  deep,  and  the  hams  are  massive. 
As  viewed  from  the  side  the  lard-type  hog  shows  great  depth  of 
body,  moderate  length,  a  slightly  arched  top  line  from  head  to 
tail,  and  a  straight  underline  that  tends  to  be  rather  close  to 
the  ground.  He  should  be  as  deep  in  front  as  behind,  in  other 
words,  symmetrical.  When  viewed  from  behind,  the  hams 
show  great  breadth  or  thickness,  not  only  at  the  top  but  also 
at  the  lower  part  just  above  the  hocks.  When  a  view  is  taken 
directly  down  upon  the  top  of  the  hog,  he  should  exhibit  great 
width  at  all  points  along  the  top  from  shoulders  to  tail.  The 
shoulders  should  not  be  wider  than  the  rest  of  the  hog,  nor 
should  the  hog  taper  in  width  from  front  to  rear,  but  be  uni- 
formly very  wide  from  one  end  to  the  other,  thus  presenting  a 
balanced  or  symmetrical  conformation  and  increasing  the  value 
of  the  carcass.  Much  quality  should  be  shown  in  head,  ear, 
coat,  skin,  smoothness  of  form,  and  fineness  and  smoothness 


284 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


of  bone  and  joints.  This  type  is  disposed  to  be  mild  and  quiet 
in  disposition,  but  a  sluggish,  inactive  hog  is  an  objectionable 
extreme. 

The  head  is  of  medium  size,  rather  short,  broad  between 
the  eyes,  and  short  of  snout.  A  narrow  head  and  finely  pointed 
snout  are  indications  of  a  poor  feeder.  The  shape  and  length 
of  head  vary  according  to  the  breed,  but  in  none  of  the  lard  breeds 
is  much  length  or  narrowness  desirable.  The  eyes  should  be  as 
large,  prominent,  and  clear  as  possible,  a  small,  sunken  eye 
obscured  by  rolls  of  fat  around  the  socket  being  objectionable. 
The  carriage  of  the  ear  varies  according  to  the  breed,  being  erect 
in  some  and  drooping  or  broken  in  others.  All  the  breeds,  how- 
ever, should  have  a  fine  and  medium  sized  ear  neatly  attached  to 


Fig.  88.     Points  of  the  Hog. 


1.  Snout 

2.  Eye 

3.  Ear 

4.  Cheek 

5.  Jowl 

6.  Poll 


7.  Neck 

8.  Shoulder 

9.  Fore  leg 

10.  Pastern 

11.  Toes 

12.  Dew  claw 


13.  Back 

14.  Lion 

15.  Side 

16.  Belly 

17.  Fore  flank 


18.  Hind  flank 

19.  Rump 

20.  Ham 

21.  Hind  leg 

22.  Tail 


the  head.  The  jowl  should  be  well  developed  or  full,  and  should 
extend  back  into  the  shoulder.  It  should  not  be  loose  and  flabby, 
but  rather  trim  and  firm.  The  cheeks  and  jowl  should  be  free 
from  wrinkles  or  seams.  The  poll  of  the  head  should  be  broad 
and  carry  forward  prominently. 

The  neck  should  be  short  and  wide,  and  blend  smoothly 
with  the  shoulder.  The  neck  should  be  broad  on  top,  and  it 
should  be  deep.  A  neck  that  is  narrow  or  peaked  on  top  and 
rather  long  is  not  often  associated  with  a  body  of  the  desired 
conformation. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        285 

The  shoulders  are  very  frequently  too  open  and  prominent, 
so  that  as  one  looks  down  at  the  top  of  the  hog  the  shoulders 
are  found  to  be  much  the  widest  part  of  the  animal.  They 
should  be  well  laid  in,  very  smooth,  and  have  no  greater  width 
than  the  rest  of  the  body,  such  a  hog  being  much  more  desirable 
from  a  market  and  carcass  point  of  view.  The  tops  of  the 
shoulders  should  not  stand  open  and  apart,  but  should  be  laid 
together  and  thickly  fleshed  so  as  to  present  a  broad,  smooth 
surface  in  harmony  with  the  rest  of  the  top. 

The  front  legs  should  be  medium  short  or  short,  this  being 
a  somewhat  variable  feature  depending  on  the  breed,  and  they 
must  also  be  straight.  It  is  especially  important  that  the  pas- 
terns shall  be  short,  upright,  and  very  strong,  and  that  the  toes 
shall  be  strong  also.  These  points  should  be  particularly  em- 
phasized, for  it  is  a  fact  that  weak,  broken-down  pasterns  and 
weak,  spreading  toes  are  among  the  most  common  and  most 
serious  faults  to  be  found  in  swine  of  the  lard  type.  Weak  legs 
may  be  due  to  a  natural  or  inherited  weakness,  or  to  improper 
feeding  during  the  growing  period.  If  growing  pigs  are  fed 
on  corn  exclusively,  they  are  liable  to  develop  weakness  of  the 
legs,  because  corn  does  not  carry  sufficient  bone-  and  muscle- 
building  constituents  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  animal 
during  the  growing  period.  The  bone  of  the  market  hog  should 
be  fine,  yet  sufficient  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  hog.  Refine- 
ment of  bone  is  pleasing  to  the  butcher  because  it  is  associated 
with  general  refinement  of  the  entire  animal,  thus  insuring  a 
clean-cut  carcass  of  quality. 

The  chest  is  an  evidence  of  the  constitutional  vigor  pos- 
sessed by  the  animal.  It  should  be  wide  and  deep,  filling  out 
behind  the  shoulders  and  elbows  and  affording  a  large  heart- 
girth.  The  underline  should  not  cut  up  between  the  fore  legs, 
but  carry  straight  forward  so  as  to  give  as  much  depth  through 
the  chest  as  through  the  middle  of  the  body. 

The  back  and  loin  of  the  lard  hog  are  very  important  parts. 
They  should  be  medium  long  and  very  wide,  and,  as  the  animal 
is  viewed  from  the  side,  they  should  be  slightly  arched.  The 
top  of  the  hog  should  be  very  deeply  fleshed  so  as  to  build  the 
back  and  loin  out  level  and  square  on  either  side  of  the  middle 
line,  thus  forming  a  rather  well-marked  corner  at  the  junction 
with  the  upper  border  of  the  side.  There  will  thus  be  no  marked 
rounding  off  from  the  middle  line,  but  a  gentle  arch  over  the  top 
from  side  to  side  and  great  width  of  top  due  to  well-sprung  ribs 


286 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


and  very  heavy  fleshing.  A  "ridgy"  back  is  an  evidence  of  lack 
of  fleshing,  and  a  narrow,  "sunfish"  conformation  is  very  faulty 
for  the  same  reason.  A  dip  in  the  back,  or  sway-back  conforma- 
tion, greatly  detracts  from  the  appearance  of  the  animal  and 
may  indicate  weakness  of  muscling;  hence  the  cuts  from  the 
back  and  loin  may  be  lacking  in  lean  meat. 

The  sides  of  the  hog  should  carry  down  straight  and  deep 
from  top  to  bottom,  and  should  be  neither  long  nor  short,  but 
moderate  in  length.  Very  short  hogs  raised  and  fed  for  market 
are  open  to  objection  because  such  a  type  does  not  grow  rapidly. 
On  the  other  hand,  extreme  length  is  secured  at  the  expense^of 


Fig.  89.     Correct  Type  in  the  Fat  Barrow. 

Poland-China  barrow,  Grand  Champion  at  the  1913  International. 
Bred  and  exhibited  by  John  Francis  &  Sons,  New  Lenox,  111,  Lengthy, 
deep,  symmetrical,  and  smooth.  This  hog  has  remarkable  quality  in  head, 
ear,  hair,  and  bone.  His  legs  are  short  and  his  pasterns  strong. 

width  and  depth,  and  also  at  the  expense  of  quick  fattening 
qualities.  For  these  reasons,  extremes  in  either  direction  are 
to  be  avoided.  When  fattened  for  the  market,  the  sides  should 
be  thickly  and  smoothly  fleshed  so  that  every  point  along  the 
side  fills  out  to  meet  the  same  straight  line  from  shoulder  to 
ham.  Wrinkles  in  the  skin  along  the  side  are  objectionable 
because  they  injure  the  smoothness  of  appearance  which  is  so 
desirable,  and  if  the  wrinkles  are  very  deep  and  are  permanent, 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        287 

that  is,  do  not  disappear  when  the  hog  changes  position,  they  are 
called  creases  or  seams  and  are  highly  undesirable.  These  seams 
most  often  occur  just  behind  the  shoulder,  but  they  may  occur 
all  along  the  side.  They  are  due  to  creases  in  the  skin  and  in  the 
flesh  underlying  the  skin,  so  that  when  the  fingers  are  inserted 
into  them  they  are  found  to  be  deep  and  pronounced.  They 
indicate  lack  of  quality  and  lack  of  evenness  in  fleshing,  and  are 
especially  objectionable  because  they  remain  in  the  side  meat  even 
after  it  has  been  pressed  and  cured  by  the  packer,  thereby  injur- 
ing the  appearance  of  such  cuts  and  affecting  their  selling  price. 

The  belly  should  be  straight  or  "well  tucked  up,"  thus 
insuring  a  good  dressing  percentage  when  the  hog  is  killed. 
The  belly  should  be  firm,  not  flabby,  and  should  be  wide  rather 
than  narrow  or  V-shaped. 

The  rump  should  be  long  and  as  wide  as  the  rest  of  the  top, 
and  it  should  carry  out  from  hips  to  end  of  body  with  a  slight 
curve  downward  to  coincide  with  the  slight  arch  of  the  entire 
top  from  head  to  tail.  Very  often  the  rump  will  be  found  very 
steep  or  drooping,  the  hips  being  carried  too  high  and  the  tail 
set  very  low.  Accompanying  this  kind  of  a  rump,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  causing  it,  is  a  faulty  position  of  the  hind  legs,  the 
feet  being  set  too  far  under  the  body.  This  constitutes  a  weak 
conformation  of  the  hindquarter,  and  gives  the  animal  an  un- 
gainly appearance.  The  rump  should  carry  out  wide  on  either 
side  of  the  tail  to  form  rather  square  corners,  and  should  not 
taper  in  width  from  hips  to  end  of  body,  but  be  uniform  in 
width  throughout.  When  the  hog  is  fat,  the  tail  sets  in  a  socket. 

The  hams  really  include  the  rump  as  well  as  the  thighs  and 
twist.  They  should  be  very  large  and  well  developed,  being 
plump  and  thick  from  every  point  of  view.  The  thickness  should 
carry  down  to  the  hocks,  and  the  space  between  the  hind  legs 
and  above  the  hocks  should  be  filled  with  flesh.  Loose,  flabby 
hams  are  undesirable  because  they  carry  too  much  outside  fat 
and  require  too  much  trimming  off  before  they  can  be  sold. 
Some  hams  lose  fifteen  per  cent,  in  trimming  at  the  packing 
house.  The  hams  should  be  reasonably  firm  in  fleshing  and 
neat  in  form,  yet  very  plump,  wide,  and  deep. 

The  hind  legs  should  be  medium  short,  or  short,  and  should 
carry  down  straight  and  vertical  from  the  hocks  to  the  ground. 
The  pasterns  should  be  short,  upright,  and  very  strong,  the  feet 
well  formed,  and  the  toes  strong.  The  bone  of  the  market  hog 
should  exhibit  considerable  refinement. 


288         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  hair  should  be  straight  rather  than  curly,  and  should 
be  fine.  A  harsh,  bristly  coat  is  an  evidence  of  coarseness.  A 
curly  coat  is  objectionable  because  curly  hair  is  usually  coarser 
than  straight  hair,  and  curly-coated  hogs  do  not  shed  their  coats 
properly,  which  injures  the  appearance.  A  swirl  or  rose  in  the 
hair  on  the  back  or  rump  detracts  from  the  appearance,  and  is 
objectionable  for  that  reason.  The  hair  should  be  abundant 
and  smooth,  and  should  lie  close  to  the  skin.  Such  a  coat  affords 
the  most  protection  and  adds  to  the  attractiveness  of  appear- 
ance. 

The  quality  of  a  fat-type  hog  is  determined  by  the  refine- 
ment of  the  head,  hair,  and  bone,  smoothness  of  finish,  and  free- 


Fig.  90.     Finished  Barrows. 

Duroc-Jersey  barrows  that  won  Grand  Championship  on  pen  of  five 
barrows  at  the  1917  National  Feeders'  and  Breeders'  Show,  Ft.  Worth,  Tex. 
Average  weight,  386  pounds;  age,  12  months.  Bred,  fed,  and  exhibited  by 
the  Texas  A.  &  M.  College.  Note  the  excellent  heads,  arched  backs,  broad 
tops,  high  finish,  and  uniformity  of  these  hogs. 

dom  from  wrinkles  and  seams.  The  hog  with  quality  has  a 
clean-cut,  well-bred  appearance  that  pleases  not  only  the  pro- 
ducer and  hog  fancier,  but  also  the  butcher,  because  such  a  hog 
yields  a  neat,  tidy  carcass  that  attracts  buyers,  and  the  cuts  of 
meat  show  a  refined  texture  that  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  cuts 
from  a  coarse,  rough  hog. 

The  proper  finish  of  a  lard-type  hog  is  secured  by  a  high 
degree  of  fattening,  but  the  feeding  should  not  be  continued 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        289 

long  enough  to  give  the  hog  a  soft,  flabby  covering.  When 
handled  along  the  back,  below  the  shoulders,  and  at  the  lower 
border  of  the  hams,  the  fleshing  should  be  rather  firm  instead 
of  soft  as  is  often  the  case,  especially  in  some  breeds.  Some  hogs 
become  lumpy  in  their  covering  of  fat,  which  is  objectionable. 
When  the  fattening  has  proceeded  far  enough  to  round  out  the 
lines  of  the  animal  and  give  him  a  smooth,  springy,  mellow 
covering  of  flesh,  he  is  in  just  the  right  condition  to  meet  with 
most  favor  from  the  butcher. 

The  temperament  of  the  fat-type  hog  is  quite  different  from 
that  of  the  bacon  hog,  being  less  active  and  more  inclined  to 
quietness,  lying  down,  and  the  taking  on  of  fat.  Ideas  as  to 
what  is  most  desirable  in  the  temperament  of  this  type  of  swine 
are  tending  somewhat  away  from  the  one  formerly  in  favor, 
namely,  that  a  hog  should  eat  and  lie  down,  and  that  a  minimum 
of  exercise  is  conducive  to  greatest  economy  in  pork  production. 
Many  producers  are  now  coming  to  believe  that  better  results 
are  secured  if  the  hog  is  disposed  by  temperament  to  take  con- 
siderable exercise,  especially  during  the  growing  period;  they  are 
selecting  more  active  hogs  for  breeding,  and  are  managing  their 
young  stock  in  such  a  way  as  to  induce  them  to  take  a  large 
amount  of  exercise.  This  results  in  growthy  pigs  of  robust 
constitution  and  lessens  the  danger  of  disease.  Exercise  also 
develops  the  muscles  and  strengthens  the  pasterns  and  legs. 
Notwithstanding  this  present-day  tendency  to  select  a  more 
active  hog  than  in  the  past,  there  must  always  be  considerable 
difference  between  the  fat  type  and  bacon  type  in  this  respect, 
the  former  being  more  quiet,  slower  in  movements,  and  having 
much  greater  natural  aptitude  to  fatten. 

The  weight  for  age  is  an  important  consideration  because 
it  is  a  measure  of  the  profit-making  ability  of  the  hog.  Pigs 
weighing  over  150  pounds,  fattened  for  the  market,  should  have 
at  least  one  pound  of  weight  for  every  day  of  their  age.  On  this 
basis,  a  pig  six  months  old  should  weigh  not  less  than  180  pounds. 
It  is  not  unreasonable  to  fix  the  standard  of  weight  for  fat  hogs 
six  months  old  at  200  pounds;  nine  months,  300  pounds;  twelve 
months,  400  pounds.  Hogs  are  matured  at  about  twenty-four 
months  of  age.  Mature  boars  in  high  condition  should  weigh 
800  pounds  or  over;  sows,  600  pounds  or  over.  The  average 
weight  of  hogs  received  at  the  large  markets  at  the  present  time 
is  about  225  pounds.  Hog  growers  are  agreed  that  weights 
from  200  to  275  pounds  for  market  hogs  are  most  profitable. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
THE  BACON-TYPE  HOG. 

The  bacon  hog  presents  some  very  marked  differences 
when  compared  with  the  lard  hog  in  form,  fleshing,  and  tem- 
perament. These  differences  are  very  necessary  because  the 
bacon  hog  yields  a  product  that  is  quite  different  from  that  of 
the  fat  or  lard  hog.  The  foremost  countries  in  bacon  production 
are  England,  Denmark,  and  Canada,  the  first  mentioned  con- 
suming the  surplus  production  of  the  other  two.  It  is  a  superior 
product  to  that  with  which  the  American  public  is  furnished, 
being  the  finest  that  is  produced.  American  bacon  is  the  belly 
meat  of  the  lighter  and  thinner  hogs  of  the  lard  type,  but  English 
bacon  is  supplied  by  a  hog  the  entire  side  of  which  is  suitable 
for  bacon.  Denmark  and  Canada  ship  bacon  to  England  in 
the  form  of  what  is  called  the  "Wiltshire"  side.  A  Wiltshire 
side  represents  half  the  carcass  of  the  hog,  minus  the  head  and 
legs.  The  neck,  shoulder,  back,  loin,  side,  belly,  and  ham  are 
included,  and  all  of  these  parts  are  retailed  as  bacon  except  the 
ham  and  shoulder. 

The  best  bacon  contains  a  relatively  large  amount  of  lean 
meat  and  small  amount  of  fat.  The  price  charged  for  bacon 
at  wholesale  or  retail  is  very  largely  regulated  by  these  features, 
a  cheap  slab  of  bacon  always  being  characterized  by  greater 
thickness,  little  lean,  and  much  fat.  The  production  of  high- 
quality  bacon  therefore  necessitates  a  different  kind  of  hog  than 
the  lard  hog,  a  hog  disposed  to  be  muscular  and  active,  but  not 
a  hog  that  fattens  readily.  The  production  of  the  best  bacon 
also  necessitates  feeding  this  hog  on  such  feeds  as  will  furnish 
nitrogenous  or  muscle-building  materials  in  abundance,  the 
carbonaceous  or  fat-forming  elements  of  the  ration  being  supplied 
in  much  less  amount  than  would  be  advisable  if  lard  hogs  were 
J>eing  fed.  This  fact  explains  why  but  few  bacon  hogs  are  found 
in  the  cornbelt,  and  also  why  the  United  States  is  able  to  pro- 
duce the  lard  hog  at  lower  cost  than  he  can  be  produced  else- 
where. Whereas  corn  plays  a  large  part  in  the  production  of 
Aard-type  swine  for  the  market,  the  bacon  hog  is  fed  on  such 
feeds  as  peas,  barley,  and  skim  milk,  which  are  much  better 

290 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        291 

suited  to  bacon  production  than  is  corn,  because  they  contain 
a  larger  percentage  of  protein. 

It  is  important  that  the  producer  of  bacon  hogs  turn  them 
off  to  market  at  that  period  in  their  development  when  the 
character  of  the  flesh  will  be  nearest  the  bacon  ideal.  To  be 
more  explicit,  if  the  hog  is  marketed  too  young  its  flesh  will  be 
watery  and  flabby,  whereas  further  feeding  and  more  age  result 
in  a  more  desirable  carcass.  Young  pigs  have  a  very  strong 
tendency  to  utilize  their  feed  for  growth,  and  as  they  become 
older  and  are  more  matured  they  fatten  much  more  readily.  It 
is  for  this  reason  that  the  best  bacon  comes  from  hogs  within 
certain  limits  of  weight.  Experience  has  shown  that  a  weight 
of  160  pounds  is  the  minimum  weight  at  which  to  market  a 
bacon  hog  and  that  the  upper  limit  is  220  pounds.  These 
figures  represent  the  extremes;  the  best  bacon  carcasses  are  from 
hogs  that  weighed  175  to  190  pounds.  This  does  not  mean  that 
the  bacon  hog  reaches  maturity  at  a  weight  of  190  or  220  pounds, 
or  that  it  is  desirable  that  he  should  do  so.  The  matured  weight 
for  boars  in  good  flesh  should  be  not  less  than  700  pounds,  and 
for  sows  not  less  than  500  pounds. 

When  the  carcass  of  a  bacon  hog  is  split  down  the  back, 
the  layer  of  fat  along  the  spine  and  back  should  be  not  less  than 
one  inch  or  more  than  one  and  one-half  inches  in  thickness, 
and  it  should  be  as  uniform  in  thickness  as  possible  from  one 
end  to  the  other.  The  production  of  the  best  Wiltshire  sides 
is  possible  only  from  hogs  that  are  long  from  shoulder  to  ham, 
light  and  smooth  in  the  shoulder,  neck,  and  jowl,  and  very 
straight  and  trim  along  the  belly. 

When  thinking  of  a  bacon  hog  we  usually  have  in  mind 
such  a  hog  as  the  market  wants,  in  other  words,  a  hog  suitable 
for  slaughtering  and  cutting  up  into  Wiltshire  sides.  Also, 
from  what  has  been  said  of  the  importance  of  certain  weight 
requirements,  it  is  at  once  apparent  that  boars  and  breeding 
sows  are  not  desired  by  the  packer.  If,  however,  their  form, 
quality,  and  temperament  are  such  as  will  cause  them  to  trans- 
mit to  their  pigs  the  characteristics  which  are  necessary  in  order 
that  these  pigs  may  be  fed  out  successfully  for  the  bacon  market, 
then  the  boar  and  sow  are  said  to  possess  bacon  type.  In  judg- 
ing breeding  stock,  certain  allowances  must  therefore  be  made 
and  certain  points  must  be  emphasized  which  do  not  concern  us 
in  judging  bacon  hogs  for  slaughter.  The  same  general  prin- 
ciples and  the  same  general  type  apply  in  both  cases,  but  the 


292 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


judge  must  emphasize  certain  points  that  are  peculiar  and  es- 
sential in  each. 

The  form  of  the  bacon  hog  is  strikingly  different  from  that 
of  the  lard  hog.  There  is  much  less  thickness  and  depth  of 
body,  greater  length  of  leg,  a  lighter  shoulder,  neck,  and  jowl, 
and  greater  length  from  snout  to  tail,  especially  from  shoulder 
to  ham.  From  the  snout  to  the  rear  border  of  the  shoulder  the 
hog  should  be  comparatively  short,  this  being  the  low-priced 
end  of  the  carcass.  There  is  considerable  difference  between 
the  retail  prices  received  for  the  front  and  hind  ends  of  the  Wilt- 
shire side.  Length  of  side  from  shoulder  to  ham  and  length 


Fig.  91.     Fancy  Market  Bacon  Pig. 

of  ham  from  front  to  rear  are  of  very  great  importance,  but  it 
is  a  mistake  to  make  everything  else  secondary  in  importance 
to  length;  length  should  not  be  carried  to  the  greatest  possible 
extreme.  The  hog  should  have  enough  depth  and  width  of 
body  to  give  him  a  strong  constitution  in  a  well-developed  chest 
and  middle.  This  applies  both  to  the  market  hog  and  the  breed- 
ing animal.  There  should  be  as  much  depth  of  body  in  front 
as  behind,  and  as  much  width  at  one  point  as  another — in  other 
words,  the  hog  should  be  symmetrical  or  balanced  in  his  con- 
formation. Great  smoothness  from  one  end  to  the  other  is  a 
prime  essential,  and  smoothness  must  be  secured  without  the 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK          293 

assistance  of  very  much  outside  fat,  such  as  greatly  assists  in 
giving  smoothness  to  the  lard  hog. 

Proper  quality  in  a  market  bacon  is  very  important  because 
a  rough  or  coarse  appearance  detracts  much  from  the  price,  and 
because  it  is  desired  that  the  flesh  be  in  fine  texture.  In  both 
market  hogs  and  breeding  stock,  a  fine,  smooth  coat  of  hair 
denotes  quality.  Well-developed  wrinkles  or  seams  in  the  skin 
indicate  coarse-grained  flesh,  and  injure  the  appearance  of  the 
finished  product.  The  snout,  face,  jowl,  and  ear  should  show 
refinement  yet  not  to  an  extreme  that  indicates  lack  of  vigor 
.and  feeding  qualities.  The  bone  should  be  flinty  and  smooth, 
rather  than  porous  and  rough.  Coarse  bone  is  very  objection- 
able because  it  indicates  hard  feeding  qualities  and  slow  ma- 
turity. The  butcher  prefers  a  fine-boned  hog,  but  the  breeder 
wants  the  boar  to  stand  on  heavy,  clean  bone  covered  with  skin 
that  shows  no  coarseness.  The  brood  sow  should  have  finer 
bone  than  the  boar,  but  it  should  be  in  every  way  proportionate 
to  her  weight,  plus  the  added  weight  resulting  from  pregnancy. 

Proper  condition  for  a  market  bacon  hog  is  a  feature  re- 
quiring considerable  practice  in  judging.  There  is  danger,  of 
too  high  a  degree  of  fatness,  even  though  the  live  weight  be 
within  the  limits  that  have  been  mentioned.  People  who  live 
in  the  cornbelt  experience  some  difficulty  in  accepting  a  properly 
finished  market  bacon  hog  as  such  when  first  taking  up  a  study 
of  this  type.  To  them  the  hog  looks  considerably  underdone. 
The  indications  of  the  proper  degree  of  fatness  are  difficult  to 
describe.  The  hog  has  a  well-fed,  thrifty  appearance,  but  not 
;a  finished  look  comparable  to  that  of  the  properly  finished  lard 
hog.  The  flesh  is  firm  and  the  hog  is  reasonably  well  filled  out 
Soft  flesh  at  the  lower  part  of  the  hams,  at  the  lower  border  of 
the  shoulder,  or  on  the  jowl,  is  undesirable  because  it  indicates 
-an  over-fat  condition  and  an  uneven  distribution  of  the  fat. 
Smoothness  and  firmness  of  fleshing  are  decidedly  essential. 

The  style  of  the  bacon  hog  should  be  marked.  He  should 
be  very  active,  thus  indicating  a  full  mascular  development. 
He  should  walk  without  apparent  effort.  A  writhing  move- 
ment when  walking  is  taken  as  an  indication  of  weakness  in 
muscling  along  the  back  and  loin. 

The  head  varies  in  shape  a  great  deal,  depending  to  a  large 
extent  upon  the  breed,  but  there  is  also  much  variation  between 
-individuals  belonging  to  the  same  breed.  Length  of  snout  varies 


294         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

with  the  breed.  A  long  snout  is  very  often  associated  with  a 
narrow  chest,  and  a  very  short  snout  often  goes  with  a  heavy 
jowl  and  neck.  The  face  should  be  broad,  and  the  poll  should 
be  broad  also  and  come  well  forward,  these  being  indications 
of  constitutional  vigor  and  feeding  qualities.  Large,  prominent, 
bright  eyes  indicate  health  and  constitution.  The  jowl  has 
very  little  market  value.  A  heavy,  fat  jowl  denotes  too  strong 
a  fattening  tendency  for  a  bacon  animal.  Good  width  across 
the  jowl  is  desirable,  but  it  should  be  very  trim  and  neat.  Size 
and  carriage  of  the  ear  vary  according  to  the  breed.  A  large 
ear  does  not  indicate  lack  of  quality  provided  it  is  fine  or  thin. 
Thick,  coarse  ears  denote  a  thick,  coarse  skin,  which,  in  turn, 
denotes  coarse-grained  flesh. 

The  neck,  while  not  a  valuable  part  of  the  carcass,  is  im- 
portant as  indicating  constitution  and  feeding  qualities.  A 
long,  thin  neck  is  an  indication  of  deficient  constitution  and  low 
feeding  qualities;  while  a  short,  thick  neck,  with  a  crest  of  fat 
on  top  will  result  in  a  side  of  bacon  that  is  too  heavy  at  the 
fore  end,  which  is  the  cheap  end  of  the  side.  Moderate  length 
and  width  of  neck  are  wanted.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  mature 
boars  will  have  heavier  necks  than  sows  or  barrows. 

The  shoulders  should  be  light  and  set  in  the  body  smoothly. 
They  should  be  deep  from  top  to  bottom,  but  not  wide  from 
front  to  rear,  and  as  one  looks  down  on  the  top  of  the  hog,  they 
should  show  no  greater  fullness  than  the  back  and  loin.  Shoul- 
ders that  have  more  width  from  side  to  side  than  the  rest  of 
the  hog  are  objectionable,  but  nevertheless  should  be  given 
preference  over  a  narrow  chest  in  a  breeding  animal. 

The  breast  should  be  wide  and  carry  well  down  between 
the  fore  legs  and  straight  out  in  front  to  join  the  lower  border 
of  the  neck,  thus  insuring  a  large  chest  capacity. 

The  front  legs  should  be  rather  long,  but  not  extremely  so, 
straight,  strong,  with  upright  pasterns,  and  carrying  the  weight, 
full  on  the  toes. 

A  back  of  moderate  width,  very  slightly  arched,  and  rounded 
over  the  top  from  side  to  side  represents  correct  bacon-type 
development  in  this  valuable  part  of  the  carcass.  A  sagging 
back  or  a  decidedly  arched  back  is  an  evidence  of  weak  muscling 
and  consequently  of  a  lack  of  lean  meat  along  the  top  where  the 
highest-priced  bacon  is  found.  The  top  of  the  hog  should  show 
a  slight  arch  from  head  to  tail  as  viewed  from  the  side,  the  highest 
point  being  over  the  loin.  A  wide,  flat  back  denotes  a  high  degree 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


295 


of  fatness  such  as  is  wanted  in  the  fat-hog  carcass,  but  not  in 
the  carcass  of  a  bacon  hog.  A  very  narrow  back  is  an  indication 
of  a  lack  of  flesh  or  lean  meat. 

The  loin  furnishes  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  side  of 
bacon  and  therefore  should  be  strongly  developed.  It  should 
have  the  same  width  and  form  as  the  back.  From  shoulder 
to  hindquarter  the  top  of  the  hog  should  exhibit  a  uniform 
width,  uniform  arch,  and  uniform  fleshing. 

A  side  that  is  flat,  straight,  and  deep,  with  a  great  deal 
of  length,  and  carrying  a  firm,  smooth  covering  of  flesh  is  de- 
manded. The  packer  likes  as  long  a  side  as  can  be  had,  but 
the  breeder  must  avoid  extreme  length  because  such  hogs  incline 


Fig.  92.     Correct  Bacon  Type. 

to  be  narrow  and  shallow  bodied.  They  lack  constitution  and 
feeding  qualities  to  such  an  extent  that  they  do  not  make  eco- 
nomical gains  on  feed.  The  side  of  the  bacon  hog  constitutes 
the  most  important  consideration  in  judging  either  breeding 
or  market  animals.  Score  cards  for  bacon  hogs  allow  more 
points  to  the  side  than  to  any  other  part  of  the  animal.  When 
the  hog  is  standing,  a  straight-edge  laid  against  his  side,  either 
vertically  or  horizontally,  should  touch  every  point  beneath 
it.  There  should  be  no  signs  of  seams  or  wrinkles,  but  a 
smooth  development  everywhere.  The  side  should  also  be 
firm  in  fleshing,  without  any  softness  just  behind  the  shoulder 
or  elsewhere. 


296         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  flank  is  important  because  a  high  flank  injures  the 
appearance  of  the  carcass,,  necessitates  more  trimming  in  order 
to  give  evenness  to  the  lower  border  of  the  side  of  bacon,  and 
also  is  an  indication  that  the  belly  meat  is  too  thin.  When  the 
flank  is  carried  down  well,  the  flesh  is  usually  carried  well  down 
on  the  ham,  the  belly  meat  is  thick  and  fleshy,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  side  is  made  more  uniform  in  depth  and  thickness. 

The  belly  should  be  straight,  trim,  firm,  thick,  and  free 
from  flabbiness.  This  part  yields  good  bacon,  but  it  is  not 
so  high  priced  as  that  from  the  loin  and  back. 

The  rump  should  not  be  broad  and  flat,  which  indicates 
too  much  fat,  but  should  have  the  same  width  as  the  rest  of 
the  top  and  should  be  rounding  from  side  to  side  across  the 
top,  the  same  as  the  back  and  loin.  It  should  be  long  also,  and 
should  round  slightly  toward  the  tail,  but  should  not  be  droop- 
ing with  the  tail  set  low. 

A  heavy,  bulging  ham  is  not  an  indicationof  correct  bacon 
type.  Such  hams  must  have  a  great  deal  of  fat  trimmed  off  them 
in  preparing  the  side  of  bacon  for  the  market.  The  ham  of  the 
bacon  hog  should  taper  toward  the  hock  and  should  be  smooth 
and  firm,  especially  at  the  lower  part  where  flabbiness  is  likely 
to  occur.  The  flesh  should  carry  well  around  the  bone,  inside 
as  well  as  outside,  and  should  not  taper  off  too  suddenly  below, 
but  let  down  well  toward  the  hocks.  The  ham  of  the  bacon 
hog  is  often  called  the  gammon. 

The  hind  legs  should  be  straight  and  strong,  the  pasterns 
upright,  and  the  weight  carried  full  on  the  toes. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 
THE  HOG  CARCASS. 

A  comparative  study  of  the  importance  of  the  various  kinds 
of  meat  in  American,  English,  French,  and  German  dietaries 
discloses  the  fact  that  civilization  is  greatly  dependent  upon 
the  hog  and  its  products.  The  following  table  gives  the  annual 
per  capita  consumption  of  the  various  kinds  of  meat  in  the  four 
countries  mentioned,  and  shows  the  large  contribution  of  the 
hog  to  the  meat  supply: 


Kind  of  meat 

United  States 
(1918) 

United 
Kingdom 
(average 
1906-1908) 

Germany* 
(1913) 

France* 
(1904) 

Beef.. 

Pounds 
78.40 

Pounds 
56.00 

Pounds 
31.35 

Pounds 
37.00 

Veal  
Mutton  and  lamb  .  .  . 
Pork,  including  lard  . 

7.50 
5.30 
102.30 

4.00 
26.00 
33.00 

7.25 
1.90 
71.30 

8.00 
9.00 
26.00 

Total 

193.50 

119.00 

111.80 

80.00 

*In  addition  to  the  above,  the  consumption  of  horse  flesh  amounts  to 
about  1  pound  per  capita  in  France,  and  in  Germany  1.9  pounds  of  goat, 
horse,  and  dog  meat  is  consumed  per  capita. 

The  British  are  well  known  to  be  partial  to  beef  in  their 
meat  dietary,  and  the  Germans  to  pork,  and  this  is  amply  sub- 
stantiated by  the  table;  nevertheless  it  is  seen  that  the  people 
of  the  United  States  consume  more  beef  than  the  British  and 
more  pork  than  the  Germans.  The  British,  however,  consume 
more  mutton  per  capita  than  any  other  nationality,  and  the 
French  come  first  with  veal.  The  figures  show  that  the  con- 
sumption of  pork,  as  compared  with  the  consumption  of  beef, 
is  greater  than  might  be  supposed.  Americans  and  Germans 
consume  more  pork  than  beef,  but  the  table  shows  a  different 
proportion  for  the  English  and  French.  These  variations  may 
be  due  to  differences  in  the  way  appetites  have  been  cultivated 
in  the  various  countries,  or  to  differences  in  the  quantities  of 
pork  produced  and  the  cost  of  it. 

In  the  combined  slaughter  of  beef,  mutton,  and  pork  in 
the  United  States,  beef  constituted  48  per  cent,  of  the  total  in 

297 


298        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

1909,  mutton  and  lamb  constituted  only  3.6  per  cent.,  and  pork 
constituted  48.4  per  cent.  These  proportions  are  practically 
the  same  as  those  recorded  for  the  year  1900.  Figures  for  1914 
show  that  approximately  54  per  cent,  of  the  total  dressed  weight 
of  meat  handled  by  wholesale  slaughtering  and  meat  packing 
establishments  consisted  of  pork,  38  per  cent,  of  beef,  6  per  cent, 
of  mutton  and  lamb,  and  2  per  cent,  of  veal. 

The  type  of  hogs  found  in  the  several  countries  varies  con- 
siderably. In  the  United  States  the  fat  or  lard  type  is  produced 
almost  exclusively,  this  being  particularly  true  of  the  cornbelt. 
The  stock  yards  of  this  country  receive  practically  no  bacon 
hogs;  the  St.  Paul  market  is  something  of  an  exception,  although 
the  number  received  there  is  comparatively  small.  We  shall, 


Fig.  93.     The  Hog  Hoist. 

therefore,  give  more  attention  to  the  fat  carcass  than  to  the 
bacon  carcass. 

Slaughtering  and  dressing. — When  the  hog  enters  the 
packing  house,  and  this  applies  to  both  the  fat  hog  and  the  bacon 
hog,  he  passes  rapidly  through  the  operations  of  (1)  bleeding, 
(2)  scalding,  (3)  scraping,  (4)  singeing,  (5)  removal  of  head,  (6)  dis- 
emboweling, (7)  splitting,  (8)  removal  of  leaf  fat  and  kidneys,  (9) 
facing  hams,  (10)  dry  room-  (four  hours),  and  (11)  cooling.  This 
is  known  as  the  "packer"  style  of  dressing.  The  legs,  feet,  and 
jowl  are  left  as  part  of  the  carcass.  An  exception  is  made  in 
the  case  of  pigs  and  some  light  hogs  intended  for  the  fresh  pork 
trade,  these  being  "shipper"  dressed,  which  means  that  the 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        299 

head  is  left  on,  the  leaf  fat  and  kidneys  in,  the  hams  not  faced, 
and  the  backbone  not  split.  Some  variation  also  occurs  in  the 
manner  of  splitting  the  carcass.  All  dressed  hogs  are  cut  open 
along  the  underline  and  through  the  aitch  bone  and  brisket, 
but  the  best  heavy  carcasses,  called  loin  carcasses,  are  split 
through  the  center  of  the  backbone,  while  the  inferior  heavy 
carcasses,  called  packing  carcasses,  are  sometimes  split  on  one 
side  of  the  backbone.  Bacon  carcasses  are  usually  cut  with  a 
knife  on  each  side  of  the  backbone  and  then  split  on  one  side 
and  the  backbone  taken  out,  making  sides  suitable  for  the  Eng- 
lish bacon  cuts. 


Fig.  94.     Dressing  Hogs. 

The  offal  and  the  dressing  percentage. — The  parts  which 
the  hog  loses  in  dressing  are  the  blood,  hair,  head,  viscera,  leaf 
fat,  kidneys,  and  ham  facings.  The  dressing  percentage  is 
determined  in  the  same  manner  as  with  cattle  and  sheep.  Hogs 
dressed  packer  style  range  in  dressing  percentage  from  68  to  80 
per  cent.,  and  average  about  75  per  cent.  Hogs  dressed  shipper 
style  have  a  dressing  percentage  about  8  per  cent,  higher  than 
those  dressed  packer  style,  the  difference  being  due  to  the  head, 
leaf  fat,  kidneys,  and  ham  facings,  which  are  not  removed  in 
the  shipper  style  of  dressing.  Hogs  dressed  shipper  style  easily 
dress  83  to  85  per  cent.  Some  hogs  in  the  carcass  contests  at 
the  International  Live  Stock  Show  have  dressed  as  high  as  89, 
89.3,  and  89.6;  but  these  were  hogs  of  show-yard  quality  weigh- 
ing 417,  429,  and  520  pounds  respectively,  they  had  been  with- 


300         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

out  feed  or  water  for  more  than  twenty-four  hours  prior  to  kill- 
ing, and  were  dressed  shipper  style.  The  chief  factors  deter- 
mining the  dressing  percentage  of  a  hog  are  fatness  and  paunchi- 
ness,  of  which  the  former  is  by  far  the  more  important. 

The  average  live  weight  of  hogs  slaughtered  in  the  United 
States  in  1899  was  218  pounds,  the  average  dressed  weight  was 
170  pounds,  and  the  average  dressing  percentage  was  78.  In 
1904,  the  live  weight  was  213  pounds,  the  dressed  weight  was 
163  pounds,  and  the  dressing  percentage  was  76.5.  In  1909, 
the  corresponding  figures  were  202  pounds,  154  pounds,  and 


Fig.  95.     A  View  of  the  Pork  Coolers 

76.2  per  cent.;  and  in  1914  they  were  211  pounds,  159  pounds 
and  75.3  per  cent. 

The  wholesale  trade  in  pork. — Only  about  one  or  two  per 

cent,  of  the  hogs  slaughtered  by  the  large  packing  houses  are 
sold  as  whole  carcasses.  About  three-fourths  of  the  whole- 
sale trade  in  pork  consists  of  various  cured  meats  and  fresh 
cuts,  the  remainder  consisting  principally  of  lard  and  a  small 
percentage  of  sausage  and  canned  meats.  Only  about  twenty 
per  cent,  of  the  domestic  trade  and  five  per  cent,  of  the  export 
trade  in  pork  products,  other  than  lard,  consists  of  fresh  meat. 

The  United  States  Census  of  1910  reported  the  total  value 
of  the  products  of  slaughtering  and  meat  packing  in  the  United 
States  to  be  $1,631,189,179.  The  following  list  of  these  products 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        301 

is  of  interest  as  indicating  the  importance  of  pork   and    the 
relative  value  of  cured  pork  and  cured  beef: 

Product  Per  cent,  of 

total  value 
Fresh  meat: 

Beef 25.83 

Veal 1.61 

Mutton,  lamb,  goat,  kid . 4. 58 

Pork 13.87 

Cured  meat: 

Beef ; 88 

Pork 24.13 

Canned  goods 1 . 62 

Sausage 4.18 

Lard 7.38 

Lard  compounds  and  substitutes 2 . 03 

Oleo  oil 73 

Other  oils 25 

Tallow  and  oleo  stock 85 

Stearin 17 

Oleomargarine 54 

All  other  products 11 . 35 


100.00 


The  Fat  or  Lard- Hog  Carcass. 


Wholesale  cuts. — After  the  carcass  has  been  thoroughly 
chilled  it  is  cut  up  into  shoulders,  hams,  fat  backs,  loins,  spare 
ribs,  and  belly.  These  wholesale  cuts  are  shown  in  the  drawings 
which  accompany  this  chapter. 

The  part  labeled  "fat  back"  is  a  clear  layer  of  external  fat 
containing  no  lean  meat.  Studies  of  the  carcasses  of  cattle 
and  sheep  disclose  the  fact  that  it  is  easily  possible  to  feed  a 
steer  or  a  wether  too  long,  and  thus  make  the  animal  too  fat 
to  suit  the  consumer.  One-half  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  of 
external  fat  is  all  that  is  wanted  on  the  carcasses  of  cattle,  and 
for  mutton  and  lamb  the  desired  thickness  is  proportionate  to 
the  requirements  for  cattle.  With  fat  hogs  we  find  an  entirely 
different  state  of  affairs,  for  the  packer  wants  a  very  thick  layer 
of  external  fat  over  the  top  of  the  hog.  This  heavy  layer  of 
fat  constitutes  a  separate  cut  known  as  the  fat  back,  which  may 
be  rendered  into  lard,  or  dry  salted  and  sold  as  a  dry-salt  cut. 
When  manufactured  into  lard  they  render  85  to  88  per  cent. 
About  one-half  of  them  are  sold  as  a  dry-salt  cut  for  which  a 
demand  exists  in  the  South  and  in  Europe.  Lard  is  far  more 
valuable  than  tallow,  hence  the  difference  in  the  packer's  attitude 
toward  very  heavy  fatness  in  the  lard  hog  as  compared  with  a 
similar  degree  of  fatness  in  cattle  or  sheep. 


302 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  belly  contains  streaks  of  lean  and  is  suitable  for  a 
"breakfast  bacon  belly"  if  the  cut  is  from  a  light-weight  hog. 
If  the  hog  is  heavy,  the  belly  cut  is  dry  salted  or  pickled  and 
sold  as  a  "dry-salt  belly"  or  as  a  "sweet-pickle  belly,"  as  the 
case  may  be. 

The  following  table  gives  the  weights  of  the  various  whole- 
sale cuts  of  pork,  the  per  cent,  of  live  weight  included  in  each 
cut,  the  wholesale  prices  per  pound,  and  the  total  wholesale 
price  of  each  cut.  This  table  was  compiled  from  unpublished 


Fig.  96.     Wholesale  Cuts  of  Pork. 

English  Cuts. — A,  Long-cut  ham;  B,  long  side  or  middle. 

American  Cuts. — 1,  Ham;  2,  loin;  3,  belly;  4,  picnic  butt;  5,  Boston  butt; 
6,  jowl;  7,  hock;  8,  fat  back;  9,  clear  plate;  2  and  8,  back;  2,  3,  and  8,  side; 
4  and  7,  picnic  shoulder;  5  and  9,  shoulder  butt;  8  and  9,  long  fat  back;  4,  5,  7, 
and  9,  rough  shoulder. 

data  of  a  slaughtering  and  cutting  test  conducted  by  J.  M. 
Evvard  of  the  Iowa  Station,  in  cooperation  with  Sulzberger  & 
Sons'  Company  of  Chicago.  The  test  included  24  Duroc-Jersey 
hogs  which  averaged  300  pounds  live  weight  and  which  dressed 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


303 


75.19  per  cent.  If  the  heads  and  leaf  fat  are  included,  the 
dressing  yield  was  81.95  per  cent.  The  following  table  repre- 
sents averages  of  the  24  hogs. 

From  carcass  of  hog  having  live  weight  of  300  pounds. 


Wholesale  cuts 

Weights 
of  cuts 

Per  cent,  of 
live  weight 

Wholesale 
price  per 
pound 

Total  value 
of  cut 

Hams    .... 

Pounds 
36.67 

12  22 

Cents 
16  5 

$6  05 

Shoulders  
Bellies  (dry  salt)  .... 
Fat  backs  
Spare  ribs  
Loins  

45.46 
56.70 
31.04 
1.58 
26.92 

15.15 

1&.90 

10.35 
.52 

8.97 

12 
14 
11 
10 
15 

5  46 
7.94 
3.41 
.16 
4.03 

Miscellaneous  
Leaf  fat  . 

8.45 
8  35 

2.82 
2  78 

5.5 
11  25 

.46 
94 

Cutting  fat  .  . 

17.77 

5.92 

10 

1.78 

Head 

12  95 

4  32 

6  5 

84 

Total  carcass  .  .  . 

245.89 

81.95 

12.6 

$31.07 

Note. — The  above  table  includes  both  sides  of  the  carcass.  The  shoulder 
cut  is  a  rough  shoulder,  including  the  jowl.  "Miscellaneous"  includes  lean 
trimmings,  tail,  neckbones,  and  rough  feet.  "Cutting  fat"  includes  small  fat 
trimmings  from  the  hams,  fat  backs,  bellies,  and  other  cuts.  It  is  rendered 
into  lard. 

High-priced  and  low-priced  cuts. — There  is  not  much 
variation  in  the  wholesale  price  of  the  various  cuts  of  pork — 
much  less  variation  than  occurs  in  the  wholesale  price  of  the 
various  cuts  of  beef,  mutton,  or  lamb.  The  rib  and  loin  cuts 
of  the  beef  carcass  sell  far  above  the  other  cuts,  and  the  rib  and 
loin  development,  together  with  the  development  of  the  round, 
practically  determine  the  value  of  the  beef  carcass.  In  the 
fat-hog  carcass,  values  are  rather  evenly  distributed,  although 
the  ham  may  be  said  to  be  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  hog. 
A  study  of  the  swine  carcass  emphasizes  the  importance  of 
good  development  in  all  parts  of  the  hog,  and  especially  is  this 
true  of  the  back,  loin,  and  hams.  The  top  of  the  hog  and  the 
hams  hold  most  of  the  value  of  the  carcass,  but  the  shoulder 
and  belly  are  almost  equally  valuable. 

Qualifications  of  a  good  carcass. — The  value  of  the  fat- 
hog  carcass  depends  upon  shape,  finish,  quality,  and  weight. 
These  various  factors  will  now  be  discussed. 

1.  Shape. — The  shape  desired  is  one  combining  great 
width  of  side  and  back,  in  proportion  to  length  of  body,  straight, 
even  lines,  and  well-filled  hams  and  shoulders.  A  neat,  trim 


304 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


carcass  is  wanted  that  is  free  from  prominence  on  the  underline. 
Hence,  barrows  are  always  preferred  to  sows  because  sows  carry 
more  cheap  belly  meat,  this  being  expecially  true  of  sows  that 
have  had  several  litters  of  pigs.  Such  sows  are  called  "seedy, " 
and  they  bring  a  lower  price  than  neat,  trim  animals  that  are 
well  tucked  up  along  the  belly.  The  accompanying  drawings 
show  the  importance  of  the  underline  in  determining  the  value 
of  the  side  cut  from  a  hog.  The  trimming  from  a  seedy  sow 
goes  to  the  rendering  tank  and  is  made  into  a  cheap  grade  of  lard. 


Side  from 
low-flanked  hog 


Side  from 
high -flanked  hog 


Side  from 
seedy  sow 


Fig.  97.     Effect  of  Underline  on  Trimming  of  Side. 
T,  trimming. 

2.  Finish.— This  is  indicated  by  the  depth  and  evenness 
of  fat  covering  the  carcass,  especially  along  the  back  and  over 
the  sides;  also  by  the  amount  and  quality  of  leaf  fat.  The  leaf 
is  the  internal  fat  and  includes  the  kidney  fat  and  extends  down 
to  the  flanks  and  "skirt"  or  diaphragm.  It  is  important  that 
the  fat  be  white  and  firm.  Packers  like  hogs  well  fattened  be- 
cause this  means  a  higher  yield  of  lard  and  a  higher  dressing 
percentage.  As  a  rule,  the  heavier  the  hog  the  more  fat  he 
carries,  because  the  nearer  an  animal  approaches  maturity  the 
more  easily  he  takes  on  fat.  This  is  shown  by  the  following 
figures  giving  the  percentage  of  yields  and  percentage  of  parts 
of  carcasses  of  swine  of  different  live  weights.  The  fat  backs 
were  all  rendered  into  lard. 


Number  of 
hogs 
slaughtered 

Average 
live 
weight 

Side 
meat 

. 
Hams 

Shoulder 
cuts 

Lard 

Total 
yield 

Figures  from  Boore  &  Company,  Chicago. 


Pounds 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

2107 

360 

37.10 

13.31 

9.62 

16.00 

76.03 

1316 

302 

36.17 

13.33 

9.05 

15.45 

74.50 

1215 

234 

36.10 

13.20 

11.05 

11.96 

72.31 

907 

204 

34.60 

13.70 

10.40 

11.55 

70.25 

Figures  from  Sinclair  Packing  Company,  Cedar  Rapids. 


2946 

293 

37.94 

12.74 

9.10 

15.09 

74.87 

4067 

236 

36.86 

13.52 

6.58 

15.04 

72.00 

1102 

232 

37.76 

13.38 

8.42 

14.21 

73.77 

1615 

232 

38.02 

13.29 

8.14 

13.89 

73.34 

TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


305 


The  above  figures  do  not  include  the  small  cuttings,  ten- 
derloins, tails,  pig's  feet,  cheek  meat,  etc.,  which  are  practically 
alike  for  hogs  within  the  weight  limits  mentioned  above.  The 
figures  show  a  marked  increase  in  the  percentage  of  lard  yield 
as  the  hog  matures. 

That  the  hog  is  by  nature  disposed  to  take  on  more  fat 
than  any  of  the  other  domestic  animals  is  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing table  of  analyses  made  at  the  Rothamsted  (England)  Ex- 
periment Station.  After  fasting  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four 
hours  the  animals  were  killed  and  the  entire  bodies  analysed. 


Animal 

Age 

Live 
weight 

Protein 

Fat 

Mineral 
matter 
(ash) 

Total 
dry 
sub- 
stance 

Water 

Contents 
of  stom- 
ach and 
intestines 
—  moist 

Fat  pig  

Lbs. 
185 

Per 

cent. 
10.9 

Per 
cent. 

4?,  ?, 

Per 
cent. 
1.65 

Per 

cent. 
54.7 

Per 

cent. 
41.3 

Per 
cent. 
3.97 

Fat  sheep  
Fat  ox  
Fat  lamb  
Fat  calf 

15  mo. 
4yrs. 
6  mo. 

8-9wks 

127 
1416 
84 
258 

12.2 
14.5 
12.3 
15  2 

35.6 
30  1 

28.5 
14  8 

2.81 
3.92 
2.94 
3  80 

50.6 

48.5 
43.7 
33.8 

43.4 
45.5 

47.8 
63.0 

6.02 
5.98 
8.54 
3.17 

These  figures  show  why  the  corn  crop  has  formed  a  closer 
alliance  with  hogs  than  with  any  other  of  our  domestic  animals. 
The  hog  requires  more  fattening  food  than  other  animals  because 
he  is  naturally  disposed  to  take  on  a  very  high  degree  of  fatness, 
and,  as  has  been  mentioned,  hog  fat  is  far  more  valuable  than 
the  fat  of  cattle  or  sheep.  Packers  desire  a  covering  of  outside 
fat  on  the  carcass  of  a  lard  hog  that  measures  from  two  to  six 
inches  in  thickness,  the  requirements  varying  according  to  the 
weight  of  the  carcass. 

Armour  &  Company's  booklet,  entitled  "Progressive  Hog 
Raising/'  by  E.  R.  Gentry,  contains  the  following  comparison 
of  the  merits  of  a  well-fed  hog  and  a  poorly  fed  one : 

"Let  us  take  two  hogs  representing  these  different  grades. 
One  has  had  good  care  and  has  been  fed  on  corn  properly  supple- 
mented with  good  forage  and  high  protein  feeds.  The  other 
has  been  'grassed  along/  getting  a  little  slop  now  and  then 
and  otherwise  allowed  to  shift  for  himself.  Both  are  killed  and 
hung  in  the  cooler  to  chill  and  harden  for  forty-eight  hours. 
At  the  end  of  this  time  they  come  out  to  be  cut  up.  The  corn- 
fed  hog  is  firm,  it  cuts  easily  with  one  stroke  of  the  cleaver  or 
one  draw  of  the  knife.  There  is  a  good  layer  of  pure  white  fat 


306         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

on  the  back.  The  loin  cuts  out  shapely  and  the  flesh  is  pink 
and  fine  grained.  The  ham  has  the  proper  depth  of  fat  and 
flesh.  The  belly  is  the  right  thickness  and  properly  streaked 
with  lean.  It  will  make  high-grade  bacon.  It  is  so  with  all 
the  other  cuts.  This  is  a  class  of  hog  that  makes  prime  cuts, 
and  so  it  is  a  prime  hog  on  the  hoof. 

"What  is  the  case  with  the  other  hog?  It  comes  out  of 
the  cooler  as  soft  and  flabby  as  when  it  went  in.  It  might  be 
left  in  for  weeks  and  still  it  would  not  harden.  To  break  such 
a  carcass  up  into  saleable  cuts  is  next  to  impossible.  It  can 
only  be  haggled  apart.  There  is  a  tough  rind  over  the  loin  and 
a  sheet  of  gristly  fat.  After  the  butcher  manages  to  get  the 
loin  out,  there  is  no  layer  of  good  white  fat  on  it  and  the  flesh 
is  yellowish  and  stringy.  The  belly  makes  tough,  inferior  bacon. 
These  cuts  cannot  be  properly  cured,  as  they  will  shrink  away. 
Even  the  ham,  when  smoked,  presents  a  dried-up,  unattractive 
appearance  on  the  market.  The  result  is  that  the  cuts  must 
either  be  sold  at  a  low  price  or  go  to  the  sausage  room  or  the 
lard  tank.  It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  why  this  hog  grades 
common  to  inferior/' 

3.  Quality. — A  carcass  is  said  to  have  quality  when  the 
outlines  are  even  and  smooth,  the  head  and  shanks  fine,  the 
flesh  firm,  bright,  and  smooth  grained,  the  fat  white  and  evenly 
distributed  over  the  carcass,  and  the  skin  smooth,  thin,  mel- 
low, and  free  from  wrinkles,  blotches,  or  bruises.     Coarse  or 
extremely  large  shoulders,  neck,  and  jowls  show  lack  of  quality 
and  are  indications  of  stagginess,  and  the  carcasses  of  seedy 
sows  grade  low  because  of  their  coarse  quality.     Barrows  and 
smooth,  clear  sows  yield  carcasses  of  the  best  quality. 

4.  Weight. — While  it  is  true  that  packers  find  uses  for 
carcasses  of  all  weights  ranging  from  20  to  400  pounds,  the 
most  valuable  carcasses  are  those  weighing  160  to  200  pounds, 
provided  the  carcass  is  at  the  same  time  one  of  good  shape, 
finish,   and   quality.     Such  carcasses  come  from  hogs  with  a 
live  weight  of  200  to  260  pounds.     Carcasses  weighing  160  to 
200  pounds  yield  loins  of  the  proper  size  and  best  quality.     The 
general  statement  may  also  be  made  that  all  carcasses  should 
weigh  heavy  for  their  size,  thus  insuring  a  high  degree  of  finish 
or  fatness. 

Bacon  Carcasses. 

The  packing  house  classes  the  heavier  and  fatter  carcasses 
as  lard  hog  carcasses,  while  the  lighter,  thinner  ones  are  cut  up 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


307 


into  the  bacon  or  English  cuts,  so  called  because  they  are  suitable 
for  the  English  trade.  The  principal  English  cuts  are  Wiltshire 
sides,  Cumberland  sides,  and  long-cut  hams.  These  cuts  are 
also  sold  under  several  other  names  depending  on  some  technical 
variations  in  the  manner  of  preparing  the  side  for  the  retail 
trade.  The  Wiltshire  side  comprises  the  entire  side  (half  the 
hog),  minus  the  head,  feet,  shoulder  blade,  and  hip  bone.  The 


Fig.  98.     Fat  and  Bacon  Carcasses  Compared. 

Note  the  difference  in  size,  and  especially  the  difference  in  fatness,  between 
the  fat  carcass  on  the  left  and  the  bacon  carcass  on  the  right. 

belly  is  trimmed  smooth  and  even.  These  sides  average  40  to 
70  pounds  and  are  selected  especially  for  thickness  of  lean  meat 
and  a  light,  even  covering  of  fat  from  1  to  2  inches  thick,  not 
exceeding  \y%  inches  in  the  best  grades.  They  are  made  ex- 
clusively from  choice,  lean  bacon  hogs.  The  best  of  these  hogs 
weigh  175  to  190  pounds.  The  drawings  which  accompany 


308         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

this  chapter  show  a  bacon  side  and  indicate  its  division  into  the 
long-cut  ham  and  the  long-cut  middle  or  Cumberland. 

Classification  of  Carcasses. 

The  classification  and  grading  of  hog  carcasses  is  based  on 
the  uses  to  which  they  are  adapted,  or  in  other  words,  it  is  based 
on  the  products  into  which  they  can  be  converted.  Therefore 
the  shape,  finish,  quality,  and  weight  determine  where  the  car- 
cass will  classify  and  grade.  The  generally  recognized  classes 
and  grades*  and  their  respective  weights  are  as  follows: 


Smooth  Heavy,  or  Heavy  L( 
Butcher,  or  Light  Loin  Care 

Packing  Hog  Carcasses  .  .  . 
Bacon  Carcasses 

>in  Carcasses  
asses  
Heavy  

240—320  Ib 
160—240  Ib 

240—  400  Ib 
.  .200—240  Ib 

Medium  

Light  
Choice  

..100—  200  Ib 

120—  160  Ib 

Good 

HO  —  170  Ib 

Shippers 

Common 

90—110  Ib 

..100—  200  Ib 
.  20—  100  Ib 

Pies  .  . 

Smooth  heavy,  or  heavy  loin  carcasses. — These  are  from 
prime,  smooth  hogs,  either  barrows  or  good  clear  (not  seedy) 
sows.  These  carcasses  weigh  240  to  320  pounds  and  have  four 
to  six  inches  of  fat  on  the  back.  The  flesh  and  fat  must  be 
deep,  firm,  and  even,  the  flesh  bright  colored,  the  fat  white, 
and  the  bones  not  coarse.  As  the  name  indicates,  such  car- 
casses are  especially  suitable  for  making  heavy  loins,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  side  being  made  into  a  heavy  fat  back  and  dry- 
salt  belly.  These  carcasses  yield  a  very  heavy  ham.  The 
per  cent,  of  such  carcasses  is  a  very  small  part  of  the  general 
supply. 

Butcher,  or  light  loin  carcasses. — A  large  proportion  of 
the  fresh  pork  sold  in  retail  markets  is  pork  loins,  which  are 
cut  into  chops  and  roasts,  and  light  loin  carcasses  are  so  named 
because  these  cuts  can  be  obtained  from  them  to  best  advantage. 
To  yield  loins  of  the  proper  size  and  quality,  a  hog  carcass  should 
weigh  about  160  to  240  pounds  and  have  the  same  shape,  smooth- 
ness, and  general  quality  previously  described.  Thick,  firm 
flesh,  smooth,  soft  skin,  and  solid,  white  fat  are  especially  im- 
portant. The  covering  of  fat  on  the  back  should  be  two  to 
four  inches.  Barrows  and  smooth  clear  sows  furnish  carcasses 
of  this  class.  The  weights  most  preferred  are  160  to  200  pounds. 
The  carcass  is  cut  up  into  the  regular  American  or  fat-hog  cuts. 


*H1.  Bui.  147. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        309 

Packing  hog  carcasses. — About  one-half  of  the  carcasses 
in  Chicago  packing  houses  are  of  this  class.  They  are  carcasses 
of  mixed  hogs  of  all  weights,  which  are  too  coarse  in  quality, 
rough  in  shape,  and  uneven  in  finish,  to  be  well  adapted  for 
fresh  pork  products  or  smoked  meats  and  are  therefore  prin- 
cipally packed  in  such  form  as  mess  pork  and  dry-salt  meats. 
The  hams  are  sweet  pickled  and  the  shoulders  made  into  picnics 
and  Boston  butts.  The  general  statement  may  be  made  that 
packing  carcasses  are  inferior  carcasses  weighing  100  pounds  or 
more  which  are  left  after  the  best  carcasses  have  been  sorted 
out.  They  are  graded  heavy,  medium,  and  light  according  to 
weight. 

Heavy  packing  carcasses. — These  are  the  carcasses  of 
rough  and  seedy  sows,  coarse  barrows,  boars,  and  stags  aver- 
aging 240  to  400  pounds.  Common  defects  of  this  grade  are 
thick,  rough,  and  wrinkled  skin,  dark-colored  and  coarse-grained 
flesh,  soft,  oily  fat,  large  bones,  and  carcass  bruises. 

Medium  packing  carcasses. — The  only  important  dis- 
tinction between  this  grade  and  the  preceding  one  is  weight. 
These  carcasses  weigh  200  to  240  pounds.  They  are  inferior 
to  butcher  carcasses  in  shape,  finish,  and  quality. 

Light  packing  carcasses. — These  weigh  100  to  200  pounds. 
They  are  too  deficient  in  shape,  quality,  and  finish  to  be  classi- 
fied as  either  bacon,  butcher,  or  shipper  carcasses.  This  grade 
comes  mostly  from  light  sows. 

Mess  pork,  which  is  made  from  packing  hog  carcasses,  is 
a  simple  method  of  packing  cheap  pork  and  was  much  used  in 
the  early  days  of  the  packing  industry.  It  is  prepared  by  cut- 
ting the  side  into  strips  about  six  inches  wide  and  packing  in 
salt  brine  in  tight  barrels  (18x29  inches)  at  200  pounds  net 
weight  of  cured  pork  per  barrel  or  355  pounds  gross.  It  is 
shipped  principally  Jo  the  Southern  States,  northern  lumber 
camps,  and  South  America.  Dry-salt  meats,  the  other  com- 
mon product  of  packing  carcasses,  are  heavy  sides,  bellies, 
shoulders,  fat  backs,  and  jowls  cured  in  dry  salt,  pumped  with 
brine,  and  shipped  in  coarse  salt.  They  are  usually  shipped 
loose,  but  sometimes  are  put  up  in  boxes  containing  25  to  500 
pounds. 

Bacon  carcasses. — These  are  suitable  for  sugar-cured, 
breakfast-bacon  bellies  and  English  meats.  Such  carcasses 
have  long,  deep,  smooth  sides  with  a  light,  even  covering  of  fat. 
The  hams  should  be  full,  but  lean,  and  the  shoulders  light  and 


310         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

smooth.  The  flesh  must  be  firm  and  not  "watery,"  the  fat 
solid,  and  the  carcass  very  smooth.  These  carcasses  weigh  90 
to  175  pounds.  The  most  desirable  weights  are  120  to  150 
pounds.  Only  a  small  percentage  of  Chicago  carcasses  are  of 
this  class. 

Choice  bacon  carcasses. — The  depth  of  back  fat  is  from 
1%  to  2  inches.  It  must  not  vary  more  than  J^  to  ^  of  an 
inch  over  the  back  and  shoulders.  Only  carcasses  of  barrows 
weighing  120  to  160  pounds  grade  here  as  a  rule. 

Good  bacon  carcasses. — These  lack  slightly  in  the  essen- 
tial points  of  the  preceding  grade.  The  thickness  of  back  fat 
must  be  1  to  2  ^  inches.  The  carcasses  range  in  weight  from 
110  to  170  pounds  and  come  not  only  from  barrows  but  also 
from  smooth,  clear  sows. 

Common  bacon  carcasses. — These  are  decidedly  lacking 
in  the  prime  essentials  of  the  class.  They  are  usually  light, 
unfinished  carcasses  from  "skippy"  or  "skinny"  hogs. 

Shippers. — These  are  similar  to  butcher  hog  carcasses  in 
shape  and  quality,  but  are  lighter  in  weight  and  generally  not 
so  highly  finished.  Compared  with  bacon  carcasses  they  are 
shorter  and  thicker  bodied,  with  a  deeper  and  less  even  covering 
of  fat,  heavier  jowls,  and  are  younger  for  their  weights.  Their 
chief  use  is  for  the  fresh  retail  trade,  and  they  must  be  fancy  in 
quality.  This  is  the  only  class  of  carcasses  that  is  extensively 
sold  as  whole  carcasses.  They  are  shipped  in  carlots  to  eastern 
pbints,  the  greatest  demand  being  in  the  winter  months.  They 
usually  weigh  100  to  160  pounds. 

Pigs. — These  are  carcasses  of  light,  young  hogs  that  are 
comparatively  lean  and  light  colored  in  flesh,  with  thin,  soft 
skin,  soft,  red  bones,  and  weighing  from  20  to  100  pounds.  They 
are  dressed  and  sold  like  skippers.  Roasting  pigs  are  dressed 
suckling  pigs  which  are  fat  and  smooth.  They  are  sold  like 
winter  lambs  direct  to  hotels  and  restaurants.  The  most  de- 
sired weight  is  15  to  20  pounds,  but  pigs  weighing  30  pounds 
are  used. 

The   Grades  of  Lard. 

From  one-tenth  to  one-third  of  the  hog  carcass  is  made 
into  lard  in  large  packing  houses,  the  proportion  varying  with 
the  relative  price  of  lard  and  grade  of  hogs.  Lard  is  sold  under 
six  different  names  representing  differences  in  whiteness,  grain, 
flavor,  and  keeping  qualities.  Lard  is  made  from  leaf  fat,  fat 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        311 

backs,  and  fat  trimmings  from  ham,  shoulder,  belly,  jowl,  and 
head.  Some  hams  trim  fifteen  per  cent.  The  highest  grade  of 
lard  is  Kettle  Rendered  Leaf  Lard,  made  from  leaf  fat.  It  is 
very  white  in  color  and  finest  in  grain  and  flavor  of  all  grades 
of  lard.  Then  there  is  Kettle  Rendered  Lard  made  mostly 
from  fat  backs,  with  perhaps  a  small  addition  of  leaf  fat.  Fat 
trimmings  are  also  used  at  times.  It  ranks  second  only  to  the 
preceding  grade.  Neutral  Lard  is  made  from  leaf  or  back  fat 
at  a  lower  temperature  than  is  required  in  the  manufacture  of 
kettle  rendered  leaf  lard.  No.  1  Neutral  Lard  is  made  from 
leaf  fat  only.  It  is  tasteless,  free  of  acids  and  impurities,  smooth 
grained,  and  remains  unchanged  in  odor  and  color.  No.  2 
Neutral  Lard  is  made  from  back  fat.  It  is  not  as  white  in 
color  nor  as  fine  in  grain  as  No.  1  and  sells  at  a  lower  price. 
Ninety  per  cent,  or  more  of  the  lard  made  at  Chicago  is  known 
as  Prime  Steam  Lard.  It  is  made  from  fat  trimmings  and 
internal  fats.  It  is  darker  colored  and  coarser  grained  than 
other  grades  and  is  the  form  in  which  hog  fat  can  be  most  econom- 
ically stored  and  shipped.  It  is  refined  before  using.  Then 
there  is  Refined  Lard  made  from  prime  steam  lard  by  a  bleach- 
ing and  stirring  process.  Also  there  is  Compound  Lard  or 
Lard  Compound,  which  is  a  mixture  of  lard,  stearin  or  other 
animal  fat,  and  vegetable  oil,  usually  cottonseed  oil. 

Government  Inspection  for  Disease. 

The  first  inspection  made  of  animals  going  to  an  inspected 
establishment  is  ante-mortem  or  on  the  hoof.  This  examination 
is  made  on  the  delivery  of  the  live  stock  to  the  packers.  Any 
animals  showing  symptoms  of  disease  or  disabled  condition  are 
tagged  "U.  S.  Suspect"  and  set  apart  for  a  more  detailed  ex- 
amination. Animals  condemned  on  the  hoof  are  sent  to  separate 
establishments  provided  for  such  purpose,  killed  and  denatured, 
after  which  •  the  product  may  be  used  for  inedible  greases  and 
fertilizer. 

Carcasses  of  hogs  which  have  passed  the  ante-mortem 
examination  are  next  inspected  immediately  after  killing,  scrap- 
ing, and  partial  removal  of  the  head.  If  any  evidence  of  disease 
appears  the  carcass  is  tagged  "U.  S.  Retained"  and  sent  to  the 
"retained  room"  for  further  inspection  of  glands  throughout 
the  carcass.  If  no  suspicious  symptoms  whatever  are  discovered, 
the  hog  goes  back  into  the  meat  supply.  Another  examination 


312         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

of  all  carcasses  is  made  as  soon  as  they  are  cut  open  and  the 
viscera  exposed.  Hams  and  bacon  are  inspected  during  and 
after  curing. 

All  condemned  carcasses  and  cuts  are  thrown  into  a  large 
steam-tight  tank  under  government  supervision.  Kerosene  oil 
is  poured  on  the  meat  to  prevent  any  possibility  of  it  ever  being 
offered  for  sale  as  fit  for  human  food.  The  tank  is  then  sealed, 
steam  turned  on,  and  the  contents  cooked  at  280  degrees  Fahren- 
heit for  eight  hours.  The  product  is  then  turned  back  to  the 
packers  for  soap  grease  and  fertilizer  materials. 

By-Products  of  the  Hog. 

Packers  estimate  that  practically  70  per  cent,  of  the  live 
hog  is  merchantable  as  fresh  or  cured  meat;  including  lard. 
Slaughtering  and  handling  involves  a  shrink  of  about  10  per 
cent.,  which  includes  the  contents  of  stomach  and  intestines 
and  loss  of  weight  by  evaporation  of  moisture.  The  other  20 
per  cent,  is  converted  into  numerous  useful  by-products.  A 
larger  proportion  of  the  hog  is  edible  than  of  any  other  food 
animal,  and  the  value  of  the  by-products  is  correspondingly 
less.  Among  the  edible  by-products  may  be  mentioned  pepsin, 
derived  from  hog  stomachs;  livers,  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
liver  sausage;  and  neutral,  a  specially  prepared  lard,  largely 
used  as  an  ingredient  of  oleomargarine.  Lard  proper  is  not 
commonly  considered  a  by-product;  it  is  one  of  the  primary  prod- 
ucts. Nearly  15  per  cent,  of  the  live  weight  goes  into  lard.  Part 
of  this  lard  is  further  processed  into  lard  oil  and  lard  stearin.  Lard 
oil  is  used  for  illuminating  purposes  and  as  a  lubricant.  Stearin 
enters  into  the  manufacture  of  chewing  gum  and  soft  candies. 

Brains  are  packed  in  cans,  frozen,  and  offered  for  sale. 
Tongues  are  canned  or  pickled.  Hearts  go  into  sausage.  Tails, 
snouts,  and  ears  are  rich  in  gelatin  or  glue.  Kidneys  are  canned 
or  frozen.  Milts  or  spleens  are  used  as  a  feed  for  growing  fishes 
at  fish  hatcheries.  The  intestines  are  cleaned,  processed,  and 
made  into  chitterlings,  a  food  product  to  be  fried  like  oysters, 
much  favored  by  colored  people.  Stomachs  are  used  as  sausage 
containers.  Something  like  7  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  hog 
is  represented  in  inedible  by-products  in  the  raw  state  which  are 
manufactured  into  glue,  soap,  glycerin,  blood  meal,  tankage, 
curled  hair,  and  fertilizer  material.  Even  the  rinds  from  skinned 
hams  and  bacons,  as  well  as  the  back  skin  of  the  hog,  are  utilized 
for  leather.  Nothing  is  wasted. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         313 

Conclusions. 

The  following  conclusions  may  be  drawn  from  the  study 
of  the  swine  carcass  and  its  various  products: 

1.  In  order  to  bring  the  highest  market  price,  lard  hogs 
must  be  fat  and  well  tucked  up  in  the  underline. 

2.  The  greatest  demand  is  for  200-  to  300-pound  hogs, 
and  hog  growers  usually  obtain  the  most  profit  by  fattening 
and  selling  their  hogs  at  weights  ranging  from  200  to  275  pounds. 

3.  Barrows  outsell   sows  because  they  carry  less  cheap 
meat  on  the  underline. 

4.  No  other  animal  equals  the  lard  hog  in  its  fat-storing 
tendency. 

5.  The  production  of  lard  hogs  furnishes  a  logical  chan- 
nel of  disposal  for  corn,  because  corn  is  a  fattening  food  and 
lard  brings  a  much  higher  price  than  tallow. 

6.  Any  kind  of  a  hog  finds  a  buyer  on  the  market,  but 
the  price  paid  depends  on  the  kind  of  carcass  the  hog  will  yield. 

7.  The  development  of  the  packing  industry  has  made 
an  outlet  for  the  plainer  sorts  of  hogs  which  otherwise  would 
be  a  drug  upon  the  market. 

8.  No  other  kind  of  meat  comes  so  nearly  being  manu- 
factured by  packers  as  does  pork. 

9.  Indian  corn  and  the  American  packing  industry  have 
combined  to  develop  the  American  swine  industry  into  a  busi- 
ness of  mammoth  proportions.     Corn,  properly  supplemented, 
makes  pork  economically,  and  pork  finds  ready  sale  because 
packers  have  discovered  many  ways  of  placing  pork  on  the 
market  in  attractive  and  highly  palatable  form  combined  with 
most  excellent  keeping  qualities. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

HOG  MARKETS  AND  PORK  PACKING— PAST  AND 

PRESENT. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Cincinnati 
was  the  leading  pork-packing  center  of  this  continent,  and  this 
position  was  maintained  until  1863,  at  which  time  Chicago 
took  the  lead.  One  by  one,  other  western  cities  have  crowded 
ahead  of  Cincinnati  until  now  her  rank  is  fifteenth  in  the  list 
of  American  hog-packing  cities.  That  Cincinnati's  supremacy 
was  not  a  permanent  one  was  due  to  the  fact  that  until  the 
West  was  settled,  live-stock  conditions  were  very  unstable, 
and  the  logical  packing  center  in  1850  was  found  to  be  too  far 
to  the  east  of  the  center  of  hog  production  as  it  existed  twenty 
years  later.  With  the  settling  of  the  cornbelt  and  the  rapid 
extension  of  the  hog's  domain  to  the  westward,  Chicago  was 
enabled,  by  virtue  of  her  location  and  direct  railway  connections 
with  the  heart  of  the  cornbelt,  to  gain  and  hold  supremacy  as  a 
pork-packing  center.  The  evolution  of  the  gigantic  pork- 
packing  business  of  the  United  States  may  be  told  in  brief  by 
first  reviewing  the  growth  and  development  of  the  business  at 
Cincinnati,  and  then  following  it  to  Chicago  at  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War. 

Early  packing  at  Cincinnati. — In  1833  Cincinnati  packed 
85,000  hogs.  Five  years  later  the  number  packed  in  the  year 
had  risen  to  182,000  head.  In  1843  no  less  than  250,000  hogs 
were  consumed  by  the  numerous  packing  establishments  then 
doing  a  thriving  business  at  Cincinnati,  and  the  town  was  dubbed 
"Porkopolis,"  which  name  was  formerly  in  general  use,  but  is 
now  nearly  obsolete.  Cincinnati  slaughtered  360,000  hogs  for 
packing  purposes  in  1853,  and  in  1863  the  highest  mark  was 
reached,  the  number  that  year  being  608,457.  The  demands  of 
the  army  were  largely  accountable  for  the  large  number  packed 
during  the  last  mentioned  year.  Prior  to  the  Civil  War,  Cin- 
cinnati was  the  center  of  the  finest  hog-raising  region  in  the 
world,  including  the  states  of  Kentucky,  Ohio,  and  Indiana. 
It  was  in  this  favorable  environment  and  under  the  stimulus 
afforded  by  a  large,  near-by  market  that  the  Poland-China 
breed  originated  during  the  period  mentioned.  Although  Chicago 

314 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         315 

took  the  lead  in  the  number  of  hogs  packed  following  the  war, 
Cincinnati  continued  to  hold  first  place  for  a  considerable  time 
so  far  as  the  quality  of  hogs  packed  was  concerned.  In  1866 
there  were  fifteen  slaughter  houses  at  Cincinnati,  some  of  which 
employed  as  many  as  one  hundred  hands.  One  concern  slaugh- 
tered 60,000  hogs  during  that  year.  Measured  by  the  standards 
of  the  time,  these  Cincinnati  packing  establishments  were  con- 
sidered to  be  gigantic  in  proportions.  In  the  same  year,  Cin- 
cinnati produced  180,000  barrels  of  pork,  25,000,000  pounds  of 
bacon,  and  16,500,000  pounds  of  lard. 

Development  of  packing  at  Chicago. — The  earliest  pack- 
ing or  slaughtering  done  in  Chicago  was  in  1827;  in  that  year 
Archibald  Clybourn  erected  a  slaughter  house  for  the  special 
purpose  of  supplying  the  garrison  at  Fort  Dearborn.  The  trade 
was  mostly  local  until  1833,  when  immigration  set  westward 
quite  strongly,  creating  a  larger  demand.  During  1835,  Mr. 
Clybourn  packed  about  3,000  hogs,  besides  considerable  beef, 
for  which  a  ready  market  was  at  hand.  This  stock  had  to  be 
picked  up  at  long  distances  from  Chicago  and  driven  on  foot 
to  the  city.  Other  men  soon  engaged  in  the  business  which 
took  on  larger  proportions,  the  surplus  product  finding  a  mar- 
ket in  the  East.  The  slaughter  nouses  were  mostly  located 
on  the  south  branch  of  the  Chicago  river,  and  into  it  the  offal 
and  filth  were  drained,  which  in  later  years  became  a  nuisance 
and  was  prohibited  by  the  city.  In  1863  there  were  58  dif- 
ferent establishments  in  Chicago  doing  a  general  packing  busi- 
ness. During  the  winter  of  1853-'54,  Chicago  packed  52,849 
hogs,  and  in  1860-'61  the  number  packed  was  231,335. 

During  the  winter-packing  season  of  1863-'64,  the  rank 
of  the  largest  packing  centers  and  the  number  of  hogs  packed 
by  each  was  as  follows:  (1)  Chicago,  904,159;  (2)  Cincinnati, 
400,000;  (3)  St.  Louis,  200,000;  (4)  Louisville,  103,996. 

Growth  of  American  pork  packing. — The  pork-packing 
year  ends  March  1st  and  is  divided  into  two  seasons — the  sum- 
mer season  of  eight  months,  from  March  1  to  November  1, 
and  the  winter  season  of  four  months,  from  November  1  to 
March  1.  This  system  came  into  use  before  the  days  of  artifi- 
cial refrigeration,  and,  although  such  a  designation  is  no  longer 
necessary  it  is  still  adhered  to  by  statisticans.  Before  1873, 
summer  packing  was  not  practiced,  but  it  began  in  September 
of  that  year  when  it  is  said  to  have  reached  the  number  of  505,500. 
The  total  number  of  hogs  packed  in  the  West  during  the  winter 


316 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


season,  and  the  cost  of  hogs  per  100  pounds  live  weight,  accord- 
ing to  the  Price  Current-Grain  Reporter's  special  reports*  since 
1849  and  estimates  previously,  were  as  follows: 


Season 

Number 

Cost 

Season 

Number 

Cost 

1842-'43 

675,000 

1879-'80 

6,950,451 

$4  18 

1844-'45 
1849-'50 
1854-'55 
1859-'60 
1864-'65 
1869-'70 
1874-'75 

790,000 
1,652,220 
2,124,404 
2,350,822 
2,422,779 
2,635,312 
5,566,226 

$2.65 
2.13 
3.37 
4.73 
11.46 
9.22 
6.66 

1884-'85 
1889-'90 
1894-'95 
1899-'00 
1904-'05 
1909-'10 
1914-15 
1918-'19 

6,460,240 
6,663,802 
7,191,520 
8,675,898 
10,456,503 
8,725,224 
12,559,412 
16,877,391 

4.29 
3.66 
4.28 
4.29 
4.67 
8.30 
6.74 
17.27 

The  number  of  hogs  packed  in  the  West  during  the  cal- 
endar years,  from  1845  to  1918,  were  as  follows: 


Year 


Number    Year 


1845 781,000    1885 

1850 1,652,000    1890 

1855 2,124,000    1895 

1860 2,350,000    1900 

1865 2,451,000    1905 

1870 2,635,000    1910 

1875 6,485,000  1915 

1880 12,210,000  1918.. 


Number 

.11,350,000 
.16,980,000 
.15,285,000 
.23,265,000 
.25,485,000 
.25,729,000 
.30,737,000 
35,116,000 


Present  leading  hog-packing  centers. — During  the  fiscal 
year  1918,  swine  were  slaughtered  under  Federal  meat  inspec- 
tion at  292  establishments  in  the  United  States  located  in  127 
cities  and  towns.  From  the  government  reports  of  animals 
slaughtered  under  federal  inspection,  the  following  table  is 
constructed,  showing  the  rank  of  the  twenty  largest  hog-packing 
cities  during  the  fiscal  year  1918: 


City 


Number  of 
hogs  packed 


1.  Chicago 6,692,697 

2.  Kansas  City 2,775,329 

3.  Omaha 2,132,068 

4.  St.  Joseph 1,772,773 

5.  National  Stock  Yards, 

111 1,490,954 

6.  Sioux  City 1,323,741 

7.  Indianapolis 1,235,443 

8.  Boston 1,227,496 

9.  St.  Paul..                     ..1,190,948 
10.  Milwaukee 1,121,361 


City 


Number  of 
hogs  packed 


11.  St.  Louis 1,091,769 

12.  Cleveland 957,093 

13.  Detroit 733,424 

14.  Buffalo 687,642 

15.  Cincinnati .  .  676,849 

16.  New  York 624,811 

17.  Fort  Worth 601,976 

18.  Jersey  City 515,134 

19.  Philadelphia 508,039 

20.  Newark 483,088 


*  Price  Current-Grain  Reporter  Year  Book,  1919 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        317 

Chicago  packing  at  present  time. — The  number  of  hogs 
packed  at  Chicago*  by  the  leading  hog-packing  firms  in  1916, 
1917,  and  1918,  and  the  total  number  packed  at  Chicago  in 
each  of  these  years  was  as  follows: 

1918  1917  1916 


Armour  &  Co  
Swift  &  Co  
Wilson  &  Co  

1,498,500 
1,144,600 
795,900 

1,253,000 
788,400 
578,000 

1,645,700 
932,000 
652,300 

Morris  &  Co 

646,800 

492,700 

596,000 

Hammond  Co 

628>800 

420,000 

497,100 

Western  Packing  Co  
Anglo-American  Co  
Boyd,  Lunham  &  Co  
Independent  Packing  Co  

...     474,300 
442,700 
384,600 
293,100 

398,200 
342,000 
272,500 
289,400 

690,100 
465,800 
369,700 
509,200 

Brennan  Packing  Co  

286,000 

196,000 

320,200 

Roberts  &  Oake 

284,800 

195,300 

272,600 

Miller  &  Hart 

208,100 

171,000 

188,400 

All  others 

.      943,278 

827,833 

984,439 

Totals 8,031,478          6,224,333  8,423,539 

By-products  from  early  hog  packing. — The  Report  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Agriculture  for  1866  contains  an  account  of 
early  hog-packing  operations  which  is  of  interest  for  comparison 
with  modern  methods  whereby  all  by-products  of  the  hog  are 
utilized.  The  following,  written  by  Mr.  Charles  Cist,  of  Cin- 
cinnati, appeared  in  the  report  for  that  year: 

"I  have  referred  to  the  remarkable  fact,  that  there  was 
a  period  in  the  West  when  corn  would  not,  in  some  sections, 
command  six  cents  per  bushel,  and  in  others  was  of  so  little 
value  as  to  be  substituted  for  wood  as  fuel.  Not  less  extraor- 
dinary is  the  fact,  within  the  knowledge  of  hundreds  now  in 
Cincinnati,  that  in  the  early  ages  of  pork  packing,  say  in  1828, 
there  was  so  little  demand  for  any  portion  of  the  hog,  other 
than  hams,  shoulders,  sides,  and  lard,  that  the  heads,  spare- 
ribs,  neck  pieces,  backbone,  etc.,  were  regularly  thrown  into 
the  Ohio  river  to  get  rid  of  them!"  The  same  writer  also  says: 
"The  slaughterers  formerly  received  the  gut  fat  for  the  whole 
of  the  labor  of  dressing,  wagoning  the  hogs  more  than  a  mile 
to  the  pork  houses  free  of  expense  to  the  owners.  Every  year, 
however,  adds  to  the  value  of  fat,  heart,  liver,  etc.,  for  food 
and  the  hoofs,  hair,  and  other  parts  for  manufacturing  pur- 
poses. Six  years  since,  from  10  to  25  cents  per  hog  was  paid 
as  a  bonus  for  the  privilege  of  killing.  This  was  later  raised 
to  75  cents  and  even  to  $1.00." 


*Year  Book  of  Figures,  1919. 


318        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

In  1863,  hog-packing  products  consisted  of  bristles,  lard, 
mess  pork,  hams,  shoulders,  bacon,  and  lard  oil  used  for  mak- 
ing candles.  The  beginning  of  the  immense  packing-house 
by-products  industry  of  modern  times  was  described  by  an 
early  writer  as  follows:  "Since  the  Chicago  river  has  ceased 
to  be  the  sewer  for  all  the  offal  from  the  slaughter  and  pack- 
ing houses,  the  owners  have  been  obliged  to  cart  it  off  to  the 
commons  and  open  fields  beyond  the  city  limits  at  a  very  heavy 
expense  to  them.  An  enterprising  firm  has,  however,  con- 
tracted with  all  the  principal  firms  the  present  season  to  carry 
it  all  away  by  the  owners  paying  half  the  expenses.  Instead, 
however,  of  carrying  it  off  and  throwing  it  away,  they  have  com- 
menced preparing  it  for  fertilizers.  They  have  provided  centri- 
fugal machines,  into  which  they  place  the  refuse  from  the  lard 
and  grease  tanks,  and  throw  out  all  the  water,  leaving  only  the 
solid  parts,  and  that  in  a  pulpy  or  pulverized  condition.  In 
this  way  they  will  prepare  about  three  thousand  tons  the  present 
season,  all  of  which  will  be  shipped  east  for  the  manufacture  of 
commercial  manures.  Another  concern  is  gathering  all  the 
bones  it  can  pick  up,  from  which  are  manufactured  large  quan- 
tities of  animal  charcoal,  and  such  as  are  not  suitable  for  that 
purpose  are  ground  up  and  sent  east,  they  having  shipped  the 
past  season  over  three  hundred  tons  of  ground  bones  alone." 

Exports  of  pork  products. — A  good  idea  of  the  importance 
of  American  hog  packing  to  European  nations  under  normal 
conditions  may  be  obtained  from  the  following  table,  giving 
exports  of  pork  products  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 1913: 
Pork  products  Pounds  Value 

Bacon . .                                                                  . .  156,675,310  $21,211,605 

Hams  and  shoulders 157,709,316  20,708,882 

Pork,  canned 4,010,862  483,959 

Pork,  fresh 1,355,378  159,654 

Pork,  pickled 45,729,471  4,944,448 

Lard 476,107,857  52,509,217 

Lard  compounds 73,754,400  7,070,967 

Sausage 4,716,610  601,596 

Sausage  casings 40,013,760  5,466,661 


Totals 960,072,964          $113,156,989 

The  only  countries  exporting  hog  products  to  any  great 
extent  besides  America  at  the  present  time  are  Denmark  and 
China.  The  United  Kingdom  is  our  largest  customer,  and 
Germany  ranks  second.  Germany's  purchases,  however,  con- 
sist almost  exclusively  of  lard.  Trade  in  meats  with  Germany 
is  not  possible  to  any  large  extent,  owing  to  he  high  duty  im- 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


319 


posed.  France  is  a  steady  importer  of  lard,  and  also  buys  some 
fat  backs,  trade  in  the  latter  being  interfered  with  by  a  high 
duty.  We  also  sell  a  good  many  dried  sausages  to  France  where 
this  product  meets  with  much  appreciation.  Italy,  Switzerland, 
Spain,  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Holland,  the  West  Indies, 
Central  America,  all  countries  in  South  America,  Asia,  and 
Australia  are  buyers  of  hog  products  in  some  form.  Some 
countries  buy  only  the  casings  for  sausage  making,  but  all  pay 
tribute  to  the  American  hog  in  one  form  or  another. 

Modern  large  hog  markets. — The  census  of  1909  estimated 
that  53,219,568  hogs  were  slaughtered  in  the  United  States  in 
that  year.  Census  reports  indicate  that  about  two-thirds  of 
the  hogs  marketed  in  the  United  States  pass  through  the  large 
central  markets,  about  one-twelfth  are  sold  for  local  slaughter, 
and  one-third  are  slaughtered  on  farms  and  ranges. 

The  receipts  of  hogs*  at  the  principal  markets  of  the  coun- 
try during  1918  were  as  follows: 


1. 

Chicago  

8,614,190 

9. 

Pittsburg  

1,808,080 

2. 

Omaha  

..3,429,533 

10. 

Cincinnati  .... 

1,462,702 

3. 

Kansas  City  

...3,327,722 

11. 

Buffalo  

.  .  1,300,738 

4. 

St.  Louis  

3,256,400 

12. 

Cleveland  

.  .  .  1,223,425 

5. 

Indianapolis  

2,749,976 

13. 

Fort  Worth  .  .  . 

762,486 

6. 

Sioux  City  

2,421,166 

14. 

Louisville  

;.  757,912 

7. 

St.  Joseph  

2,351,013 

15. 

Wichita  

617,745 

8. 

St.  Paul  

2,061,390 

16. 

Nashville  

580,961 

Total  

36,725,439 

As  shown  by  the  above  figures,  Chicago  receives  more  than 
twice  as  many  hogs  as  any  other  market  in  the  country.  Of  the 
8,614,190  hogs  received  at  the  Chicago  yards  during  1918, 
7,643,326  were  slaughtered  by  Chicago  packers,  946,414  were 
shipped  out  alive  to  other  points  for  slaughter,  and  24,450  were 
shipped  out  for  feeding.  In  addition  to  the  hogs  included  in 
the  above  figures,  small  packing  firms  at  Chicago,  located  out- 
side the  yards,  received  and  slaughtered  388,152  hogs  in  1918. 

The  growth  of  the  Chicago  market  is  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing list  of  receipts  and  shipments  of  hogs  at  that  point  dur- 
ing the  years  mentioned: 


Year 

Receipts 

Shipments 

Year 

Receipts 

Shipments 

1858 

540,486 

192  013 

1880 

7  059  555 

1  394,990 

I860..  . 

392,864 

227  164 

1890 

7,663  829 

1,985,700 

1866  
1870  
1875.. 

961,746 
1,693,158 
3,912,110 

482,875 
924,453 
1,582,643 

1900  .  . 
1910  
1918.. 

8,109,064 
5,586,858 
8.614,190 

1,452,183 
1,202,390 
970,864 

*Year  Book  of  Figures,  1919. 


320         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  advent  of  the  refrigerator 
car,  about  1875,  had  a  marked  effect  on  the  proportionate  num- 
ber of  hogs  shipped.  The  largest  number  of  hogs  received  at 
Chicago  in  a  year  was  in  1916,  when  9,188,224  head  were  re- 
ceived at  the  yards  proper.  If  receipts  by  outside  packing 
firms  are  included,  the  figure  is  raised  to  9,528,267,  The  highest 
record  for  a  month  is  credited  to  January,  1916,  when  1,227,508 
hogs  were  received  at  the  yards  and  enough  by  outside  packers 
to  make  the  total  1,286,  616.  The  record  week  was  that  ending 
January  8,  1916,  when  334,279  were  received  at  the  yards,  and 


Fig.  99.     Unloading  Hogs  at  Chicago. 

356,362  in  all.  On  November  29,  1918,  the  largest  day's  receipts 
were  recorded,  the  figures  being  96,964  and  101,601  respectively. 

The  number  of  hogs  marketed  annually  varies  greatly. 
This  fluctuation  is  caused  partly  by  the  ravages  of  disease,  and 
partly  by  the  fact  that  if  an  unexpected  or  temporary  demand 
springs  up,  and  higher  prices  rule,  great  numbers  of  hogs  of 
inferior  size  and  weight  are  rushed  to  market. 

Some  peculiarities  of  the  hog  crop.— The  following  table 
gives  the  monthly  average  weights  of  hogs  at  Chicago  during 
the  years  from  1907  to  1918  inclusive.  The  highest  monthly 
average  of  each  year  is  given  in  black  type,  while  the  lowest 
monthly  average  is  enclosed  in  parenthesis: 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        321 


Year  1907  1908  1909  1910  1911  1912  1913  1914  1915  1916  1917  1918 

January..  223  215  (203)  (210)  226  (212)  226  (216)  223  195  (199)  (216) 

February.  222  212  204  213  230  217  230  224  224  204  204  231 

March...  228  212  206  218  239  218  240  233  231  214  209  238 

April ....  234  219  212  227  241  227  242  233  233  219  213  242 

May 235  218  216  239  242  232  242  236  233  220  217  238 

June 236  217  219  242  236  235  244  237  231  226  225  235 

July.  .   .  240  222  225  246  233  239  243  244  238  231  232  243 

August .  .  250  224  232  255  239  240  233  248  246  232  233  243 

September  253  219  232  259  224  235  222  242  235  223  231  247 

October... 235  (207)  227  253  212  226  209  229  204  210  212  233 

Novemb'r(209)  213  225  232  (208)  222  (207)  218  (187)  195  209  226 

December  214  211  214  224  213  223  213  226  190  (193)  211  223 

Average..  231  216  218  235  228  226  228  231  219  210  213  234 

The  above  table  shows  that,  as  a  rule,  the  hogs  marketed  in 
August  and  September  are  the  heaviest  of  the  year,  while  the 
smallest  average  weights  usually  occur  in  the  months  of  Novem- 
ber, December,  and  January.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
crop  of  spring  pigs  arrives  on  the  market  mainly  in  November, 
December,  and  January,  being  held  until  the  hog's  share  of  the  corn 
crop  has  been  utilized  in  fattening  him  for  the  market.  The 
heaviest  weights  are  attained  in  August  and  September  because 
of  the  absence  from  the  market  at  that  time  of  any  considerable 
number  of  young  hogs.  Relatively  few  hogs  are  marketed  dur- 
ing August  and  September,  but  the  receipts  include  a  larger 
proportion  of  aged  hogs  than  in  other  months,  the  result  of 
culling  down  brood  sows  after  pigs  are  weaned  and  before  winter 
begins.  Hogs  are  marketed  in  much  larger  numbers  in  winter 
than  in  summer,  the  heaviest  marketing  usually  occurring  in 
December  and  January.  That  the  largest  receipts  occur  in 
December  and  January  and  the  smallest  in  August  and  Septem- 
ber is  explained  by  the  close  dependence  of  hogs  on  corn.  Hog 
growers  wait  until  the  corn  crop  can  be  put  on  the  backs  of 
their  hogs  before  marketing  them.  This  explains  the  monthly 
fluctuation  in  receipts. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 
MARKET  CLASSIFICATION  OF  SWINE. 

At  Chicago  the  charge  for  the  yardage  of  hogs  is  10  cents 
per  head.  Commission  charges  for  selling  hogs  are  as  follows: 
Hogs  in  car  lots,  20  cents  per  head;  single-deck  cars,  minimum 
$10,  maximum  $12;  double-deck  cars,  minimum  $15,  maximum 
$20;  less  than  25  hogs  in  one  car,  40  cents  per  head.  Public 
inspection  of  hogs  costs  20  cents  per  car,  no  fee  being  charged 
on  cars  containing  less  than  twenty  head.  Corn  is  $2  per  bushel. 

Following  is  the  classification  of  swine  as  used  on  the  prin- 
cipal markets  and  by  newspapers  reporting  these  markets: 

Classes  Sub-classes 

Prime  Heavy  Hogs 300-400  Ibs None 

[Heavy  Butchers 260-300  Ibs. 

Butcher  Hogs 150-300  Ibs ...  \  Medium  Butchers. . .  .200-260  Ibs. 

[Light  Butchers 150-200  Ibs. 

( Heavy  Packing 275-500  Ibs. 

Packing  Hogs 200-500  Ibs ...  \  Medium  Packing 225-275  Ibs. 

1  Mixed  Packing 200-300  Ibs. 

English  Bacon 160-220  Ibs. 

T  .  ,  .  TT  10K  oon  lu  U.  S.  Bacon 160-200  Ibs. 

Light  Hogs .  .  .  . 125-220  Ibs ...     Light  Mixed 150_200  lbg 

Light  Light 125-150  Ibs. 

Pigs 50-125  Ibs. 

Roughs 

Stags 

Boars 

Feeding  Pigs 50-150  Ibs. 

Roasting  Pigs 15-  30  Ibs. 

Governments 
Cripples 
Dead  Hogs 

Prime  Heavy  Hogs. 

This  class  calls  for  a  prime,  heavy,  fat-back  hog,  weighing 
from  300  to  400  pounds — the  extreme  of  the  fat  or  lard  hog 
type.  With  the  tendency  of  producers  and  consumers  to  favor 
the  lighter  hogs,  there  are  not  so  many  prime  heavy  hogs  as 
formerly.  Only  the  best  hogs  of  these  weights  classify  here. 
They  are  usually  barrows.  They  yield  a  heavy  loin  carcass. 

Butcher  Hogs. 

This  class  is  the  most  numerous  and  the  most  popular  on 
the  market.  Butcher  hogs  must  be  very  good  in  quality,  correct 

322 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


323 


in  form,  and  show  evidence  of  ripeness  in  condition.  They  are 
principally  barrows.  Barrows  sell  more  readily  and  at  better 
prices  than  sows.  In  a  drove  of  butcher  hogs  there  may  be 
present  a  few  good  sows  without  detracting  from  the  value  of 
the  drove.  Good  young  sows  are  usually  kept  on  the  farm  for 
breeding  purposes,  and  poor  young  sows  and  old  sows  will  not 
take  on  the  finish  required  in  the  butcher  hog  class.  Butcher 
hogs  yield  light  loin  carcasses  and  shipper  carcasses  and  are 
commonly  used  in  the  fresh  meat  trade.  This  class  yields  the 
pork  chop,  ham,  and  bacon.  They  range  in  age  from  six  to 
ten  months.  Except  in  age  and  weight,  the  three  sub-classes 
of  butcher  hogs  are  practically  the  same.  The  butcher  hog 


Fig.  100.     Prime  Heavy  Hogs. 

carried  to  sufficient  weight  becomes  a  prime  heavy  hog,  but  hog 
growers  do  not,  as  a  rule,  find  this  practice  a  profitable  one. 

Packing  Hogs. 

This  class  ranks  next  to  the  butcher  class  in  numbers.  These 
hogs  are  a  poorer  sort  than  butcher  hogs,  and  it  is  here  that  we 
find  old  brood  sows  and  all  other  hogs  that  are  heavy  enough 
for  this  class  and  not  good  enough  to  classify  as  butcher  hogs 
or  as  prime  heavy  hogs.  However,  it  does  not  include  the 
poorest  classes,  such  as  roughs,  boars,  and  coarse  stags.  This 
is  the  class  of  hogs  which,  as  the  name  indicates,  is  of  particular 
importance  and  interest  to  the  packer.  The  side  meat  from 
these  hogs  is  used  principally  in  the  various  processes  of  curing. 


324         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

It  is  made  into  mess  pork,  short-cut  mess  pork,  dry-salt  sides, 
and  the  hams  and  shoulders  are  cured.  These  hogs  range  in 
age  from  nine  months  upward.  A  200-pound  packing  hog 
is  usually  an  older  hog  than  a  200-pound  butcher  hog.  Packing 
hogs  differ  widely  in  character.  The  class  includes  old  sows 
that  bear  evidence  of  once  having  had  pigs,  called  "seedy" 
sows,  but  are  fitted  in  very  high  condition;  good  packing  hogs, 
either  heavy  or  medium  according  to  weight;  barrows  that  are 
not  well  enough  developed  and  not  good  enough  in  form,  quality, 
and  condition  to  go  into  the  butcher  hog  class,  and  there  may  be 
a  mixture  of  sows  and  barrows  quite  varying  in  quality  and 
condition.  Pregnant  sows  sell  with  a  dockage  of  40  pounds. 


Fig.  101.     Prime  Butcher  Hogs. 

Sub-classes  of  packing  hogs. — Heavy  packing  includes 
the  heavy  hogs  of  the  packing  hog  class,  and  medium  packing 
includes  the  lighter  hogs.  Mixed  packing  is  a  sub-class  that 
is  somewhat  characteristic  in  itself,  for  it  includes  hogs  coming 
from  local  buyers  in  the  country,  and  represents  hogs  of  different 
classes  as  well  as  different  grades,  as  the  name  indicates.  There 
may  be  heavy  packing,  medium  packing,  some  light  hogs,  and 
even  a  few  butcher  hogs  in  the  drove.  Many  such  droves  come 
to  the  market  and  are  sold  to  the  packer  without  sorting.  In 
such  cases  the  sorting  is  done  after  slaughtering  when  the  car- 
casses are  being  cut,  the  heavy  ones  being  sent  one  way  and  the 
lighter  ones  another.  It  is  principally  mixed  packing  hogs  that 
furnish  a  field  for  operation  to  the  speculator.  He  buys  several 
carloads  of  these  mixed  packing  hogs  and  sorts  them  into  various 
classes  and  resells  them. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 
Light  Hogs. 


325 


These  are  mostly  from  five  to  eight  months  old.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  there  is  some  overlapping  in  weight  between 
this  and  preceding  classes.  This  class  includes  hogs  that  are 
too  light  in  weight  or  too  lacking  in  condition  or  quality  to 
classify  as  butcher  hogs.  With  the  possible  exception  of  some 
of  the  English  bacon  hogs,  light  hogs  are  not  as  heavy  as  packing 
hogs.  As  a  class,  light  hogs  have  better  quality  than  packing 
hogs.  The  light  hog  class  does  not  include  roughs,  stags,  and 
boars,  which  form  separate  classes.  Although  alike  in  weight, 
hogs  of  this  class  vary  a  great  deal  in  form,  quality,  and  con- 
dition. Such  being  the  case,  the  meat  from  them  is  prepared 
differently,  thus  making  the  sub-classes  of  more  importance 
than  in  the  two  former  classes.  The  sub-classes  of  light  hogs 


Fig.  102.     Choice  Butcher  Hogs. 

are  English  bacon  hogs,  bacon  hogs  of  the  United  States,  light 
mixed  hogs,  and  light-light  hogs. 

English  bacon  hogs. — The  kind  of  a  hog  that  is  typical  of 
this  sub-class  of  light  hogs  has  already  been  described  in  the 
chapter  dealing  with  bacon  hog  type.  The  hog  that  is  repre- 
sentative of  this  sub-class  belongs  primarily  to  Great  Britain, 
Denmark,  and  Canada.  Practically  no  hogs  of  this  type  are 
received  at  Chicago.  The  St.  Paul  market  receives  a  few. 
Many  hogs  are  sold  on  the  Chicago  and  other  markets  for  bacon 
purposes,  but  the  majority  of  them  are  not  of  true  bacon  type. 
This  hog  must  be  long  in  body,  deep  in  side,  with  comparatively 
narrow  back,  narrow  and  light  hams  and  shoulders,  and  light 
muscular  neck.  As  the  side  of  the  hog  furnishes  the  best  cuts, 
it  is  desirable  to  have  the  side  as  well  developed  as  possible  in 
length  and  depth.  This  hog  must  have  firm  flesh,  be  well  cov- 


326 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


ered  with  lean  meat  or  muscle,  and  must  not  have  an  excess  of 
external  fat.  The  weight  must  be  between  160  and  220  pounds, 
with  weights  between  175  and  190  pounds  preferred.  Such 
weights  insure  cuts  that  are  most  desirable  as  to  size,  flavor, 
and  firmness.  A  hog  smaller  than  160  pounds  would  furnish 
a  side  of  bacon  that  would  be  too  thin  and  watery,  while  a  hog 
over  220  pounds  would  yield  a  side  that  would  be  too  thick  and 
too  fat. 

Bacon  hogs  of  the  United  States. — As  there  are  only  a 
few  real  bacon  hogs  produced  in  this  country,  the  trade  is  sup- 
plied from  the  lighter  hogs  of  lard  hog  breeding  which  show  a 


Fig.  103.     Packing  Sow. 

tendency  toward  the  bacon  type.  In  other  words,  this  sub- 
class includes  hogs  selected  from  the  light  hog  class  that  conform 
as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  bacon  type.  They  weigh  from  160 
to  200  pounds,  and  range  in  age  from  six  to  eight  months.  The 
bacon  made  from  them  is  inferior  to  that  made  from  true  bacon 
hogs  and  hence  brings  a  somewhat  lower  price. 

Light  mixed  hogs. — Here  we  find  somewhat  of  a  miscella- 
neous class  quite  similar,  except  as  to  weight,  to  mixed  packing 
hogs.  This  class  contains  hogs  of  the  light  butcher  weights  that 
are  too  poor  in  quality,  form,  and  condition  for  butcher  hogs. 
It  also  contains  hogs  of  the  same  weights  as  bacon  hogs,  that 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        327 

are  too  much  of  the  fat  or  lard  type  for  bacon.  This  class,  then, 
is  made  up  of  outcasts  of  two  other  classes  of  hogs;  in  one  case 
it  takes  the  poorer  hogs  and  in  the  other  case  the  better  hogs, 
considered  from  the  fat  or  lard  hog  standpoint.  Hogs  of  this 
class  are  used  principally  for  the  fresh  meat  trade  and  weigh 
from  150  to  200  pounds.  They  range  in  age  from  five  to  seven 
months. 

Light-light  hogs. — These  range  in  weight  from  125  to  150 
pounds,  and  in  age  from  five  to  six  months.  They  are  called 
"light  light"  because  they  are  the  lightest  of  light  hogs.  They 
are  used  principally  for  the  fresh  meat  trade.  In  the  Buffalo 
market  light  hogs  weighing  from  130  to  180  pounds  are  called 
"Yorkers."  They  are  so  called  because  they  find  ready  sale 
on  the  New  York  market  and  are  very  often  shipped  there  from 
Buffalo.  "Dairies"  is  another  term  used  in  Buffalo,  and  means 
hogs  that  have  been  fed  on  slops  and  refuse  from  dairies.  The 
flesh  of  these  hogs  is  not  so  firm  nor  will  they  dress  out  so  well 
as  corn-fed  hogs. 

Pigs. 

Pigs,  as  they  are  considered  on  the  market,  range  in  weight 
from  50  to  125  pounds,  and  in  age  from  3J/£  to  6  months.  All 
pigs  within  these  limits  bought  for  slaughter  classify  here.  They 
are  used  principally  to  supply  the  demand  from  the  cheaper 
restaurants  and  lunch  counters,  and  are  in  greatest  demand  in 
winter,  being  hard  to  preserve  fresh  in  summer  and  too  young 
to  cure. 

Roughs. 

In  this  class  we  find  hogs  of  all  sizes  that  are  very  coarse, 
rough,  and  lacking  in  condition.  They  are  sometimes  called 
"throwouts."  The  pork  from  these  hogs  is  used  for  the  cheaper 
class  of  trade  for  both  packing  and  fresh  meat  purposes.  In 
market  reports,  pigs  and  roughs  are  frequently  classed  together; 
not  because  they  belong  in  the  same  class,  but  because  they  sell 
at  about  the  same  price. 

Stags. 

Stags  are  hogs  that  at  one  time  were  boars  beyond  the  pig 
stage  and  were  castrated.  They  sell  with  a  dockage  of  70  pounds. 
If  they  are  of  good  quality  and  condition  and  do  not  show  too 


328          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

much  stagginess,  they  go  in  with  the  various  grades  of  packing 
hogs.  When  they  are  too  coarse  and  staggy  in  appearance 
they  are  sold  in  the  same  class  as  boars. 

Boars. 

Boars  are  always  sold  in  a  class  by  themselves  and  bring 
a  much  lower  price  than  the  best  hogs  on  the  market  at  the  same 
time.  They  sell  without  dockage.  The  pork  is  used  to  supply 
the  cheaper  class  of  trade  and  also  for  making  sausage.  Boars 
are  not  usually  marketed  until  their  days  of  breeding  service 
are  over  and  they  are  old  and  coarse.  Many  of  them  are  con- 
demned by  government  inspectors  because  of  sexual  odor.  They 
then  bring  only  fertilizer  price. 

Feeding  Pigs. 

During  the  last  few  years  the  prevention  of  hog  cholera 
by  means  of  the  serum  treatment  has  made  possible  the  rapidly 
growing  practice  of  buying  feeder  pigs  at  the  large  markets. 
Chicago  sent  practically  no  hogs  back  to  farms  prior  to  1917, 
but  in  that  year  shipped  45,448  feeder  hogs,  and  in  1918  shipped 
24,450.  Sioux  City  shipped  7,715  in  1916,  108,941  in  1917,  and 
41,004  in  1918.  Kansas  City  shipped  18,183  in  1917,  and  174,929 
in  1918.  St.  Paul  is  the  leading  feeder  hog  market  with  22,576 
in  1916,  231,631  in  1917,  and  172,569  in  1918.  Thirteen  leading 
markets  sent  out  139,161  head  in  1916,  708,416  in  1917,  and 
774,011  in  1918.  Previously  ,  the  purchase  of  pigs  at  the  mar- 
kets for  feeding  purposes  was  a  dangerous  practice  and  was  not 
often  attempted.  They  are  now  given  the  preventative  treat- 
ment for  cholera  before  leaving  the  market.  It  is  necessary 
that  pigs  leaving  the  Chicago  yards  shall  be  inspected  for  disease 
by  government  officials,  shall  be  given  the  single  serum  treat- 
ment, and  shall  be  dipped.  The  charge  for  these  services  usually 
amounts  to  about  $1.50  per  cwt.  The  commission  charge  for 
buying  hogs  weighing  on  an  average  of  over  140  pounds  per 
head  is  $10  per  car,  either  single  or  double  deck;  hogs  averaging 
140  pounds  or  less,  $15  per  car. 

Feeder  pigs  weigh  from  50  to  150  pounds,  with  weights 
from  90  to  120  pounds  most  desired,  and  must  be  in  thrifty, 
growing  condition,  but  not  fat.  They  should  show  quality  and 
evidence  of  good  breeding,  and  should  be  as  uniform  as  possible 
in  size  and  appearance. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        329 
Roasting  Pigs. 

These  are  from  three  to  six  weeks  old  and  weigh  from  15 
to  30  pounds.  They  come  to  market  in  small  numbers  and 
only  during  holiday  seasons.  They  are  taken  direct  from  their 
dams,  dressed  with  head  and  feet  on,  and  served  like  spring 
chickens  or  turkeys.  The  price  varies  greatly. 

Governments. 

Before  hogs  are  allowed  to  pass  over  the  scales  to  be  weighed 
out  to  the  packer,  the  speculator,  the  shipper,  or  any  one  else 
who  may  choose  to  buy  them,  they  must  first  pass  the  scrutiny 
of  a  government  inspector.  All  hogs  not  considered  sound  in 
every  respect  are  tagged  by  this  inspector  and  retained  for  fur- 
ther examination.  Badly  pregnant  sows,  hogs  with  bunches, 
boils,  etc.,  also  hogs  with  cuts  on  the  hams  and  shoulders  are 
retained.  These  are  called  "Governments."  They  are  usually 
bought  up  by  a  local  dealer  and  taken  to  one  of  the  smaller 
packing  houses  where  they  are  slaughtered  under  the  supervision 
of  an  inspector.  If  found  to  be  affected  so  as  to  make  the  flesh 
unfit  for  human  food,  they  are  condemned  and  tanked.  The 
tank  is  a  large  steam-tight  receptacle,  like  a  steam  boiler,  in 
which  the  carcass  is  converted  into  grease  and  fertilizer. 

Cripples. 

These  are  hogs  that  are  not  able  to  keep  their  feet.  Weak- 
ness of  pasterns,  feet,  and  legs  is  a  common  fault  in  lard  hogs, 
especially  in  those  heavily  fattened  on  corn  not  properly  supple- 
mented with  protein  feeds.  Lack  of  exercise  is  another  cause. 
Overcrowding  of  cars  and  loading  and  unloading  too  hurriedly 
result  in  a  good  many  crippled  hogs.  On  the  market  there  are 
far  more  cripples  among  hogs  than  among  any  other  class  of 
stock.  Crippled  hogs  sell  to  speculators  for  fully  a  dollar  less 
per  cwt.  than  they  would  have  otherwise  brought. 

Dead  Hogs. 

These  are  hogs  that  died  in  transit  due  to  overheat,  rough 
handling,  over-feeding  in  hot  weather  before  shipping,  and 
other  causes.  They  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  grease, 
soap,  and  fertilizer.  If  they  weigh  100  pounds  or  over,  they 
,bring  the  fertilizer  price,  which  is  now  about  $3.00  per  cwt.  If  they 


330 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


weigh  less,  they  are  held  in  payment  of  the  cost  of  handling  and 
the  shipper  gets  no  return.  Actual  count  of  dead  stock  removed 
from  cars  at  Chicago,  as  made  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  for  a  period  of  two  years,  showed  the  number  to  be  1 
out  of  2500  cattle,  1  out  of  164  calves,  1  out  of  526  sheep,  and 
1  out  of  244  hogs. 

Hog  Prices  at  Chicago. 

Chicago  prices  in  1918.*— On  Monday,  Sept.  16,  1918,  two 
loads  of  butcher  hogs,  averaging  214  and  249  pounds  respectively, 
sold  at  $20.95,  the  highest  record  for  carload  lots  on  the  Chicago 
open  market.  On  the  same  day  32  head  averaging  192  pounds 
sold  at  $21.00,  and  ten  loads  averaging  from  194  to  246  pounds 
sold  at  $20.90.  On  Nov.  25,  1907,  the  general  average  price 
on  the  Chicago  market  was  $3.96.  In  1896  whole  droves  of 
packing  hogs  sold  between  $2.70  and  $3.00,  and  the  extreme 
range  of  prices  that  year  was  $2.40  to  $4.45.  The  very  heavy 
demand  for  pork  products  during  the  World  War  resulted  in 
new  record  top  prices  and  new  record  average  prices  for  all 
classes  of  hogs  at  Chicago  in  1918. 

Market  values  of  the  various  classes. — No  detailed  records 
are  kept  of  the  average  prices  made  by  the  various  market 
classes  of  hogs  on  the  Chicago  market.  The  following  table 
gives  the  yearly  average  weights  and  yearly  average  prices  of 
hogs  marketed  at  Chicago  from  1909  to  1918,  and  also  the  aver- 
ages for  the  entire  ten-year  period. 


Year 

Average 
weight 

Heavy 
packing 
hogs 

Light 
hogs 

Pigs 

Mixed 
hogs 

All 
classes 

1909. 

Pounds 

218 

$7.45 

$7.25 

$6.55 

$7.25 

$7.35 

1910       

235 

8.90 

8.90 

8.80 

8.90 

8.90 

1911         

228 

6.70 

6.70 

6.05 

6.70 

6.70 

1912  
1913  
1914  

226 

228 
231 

7.55 

8.20 
8.20 

7.50 

8.45 
8.35 

6.40 
7.35 
7.60 

7.60 
8.50 
8.30 

7.55 
8.35 
8.30 

1915 

219 

7.00 

7.20 

6.60 

7.20 

7.10 

1916     

210 

9.65 

9.45 

9.40 

9.60 

9.60 

1917  
1918  

213 

234 

15.20 
17.50 

14.90 
17.60 

14.40 
15.57 

15.10 
17.40 

15.10 
17.45 

Ten  year  average.  .  . 

224 

$9.65 

$9.65 

$8.90 

$9.65 

$9.65 

*  Year  Book  of  Figures,  1919. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        331 

Comparison  of  the  hog  market  with  the  cattle  and  sheep 
markets  brings  out  strikingly  the  fact  that  there  is  considerable 
spread  in  the  price  of  cattle  and  sheep,  and  relatively  little  spread 
in  the  price  of  hogs.  A  report  for  any  day  of  the  year  will  sub- 
stantiate this  statement.  Between  the  best  cattle  and  the 
poorest  cattle  on  the  market,  there  is  a  tremendous  difference 
in  price  per  cwt.,  and  even  between  the  best  and  poorest  fat 
steers  there  is  a  great  difference.  The  same  is  true  of  sheep. 
The  price  of  cattle  and  sheep  is  determined  very  largely  by 
condition  and  quality,  but  hogs  sell  almost  entirely  by  weight. 
The  condition  and  quality  of  hogs  vary  considerably  and  affect  the 
price,  but  do  not  affect  the  price  to  any  great  degree.  Omitting 
pigs,  roughs,  and  boars,  which  make  up  a  small  percentage  of  a 
day's  run,  one  dollar  will  usually  cover  the  spread  on  the  bulk  of 
hogs  sold  each  day.  There  are  several  reasons  for  the  small 
spread  in  price  of  hogs.  1.  Packers  have  discovered  and  de- 
veloped methods  of  curing  cuts  from  the  poorer  hogs  which  enable 
them  to  put  this  meat  on  the  market  in  attractive  and  appetizing 
form.  This  has  increased  the  price  of  the  plainer  classes  of  hogs. 
2.  Hogs  do  not  vary  so  much  in  dressing  percentage  as  cattle 
and  sheep.  3.  All  hogs  are  strictly  meat  animals,  whereas  the 
cattle  market  receives  a  considerable  number  of  dairy  animals, 
and  the  sheep  market  receives  a  large  number  of  Merinos. 
4.  Age  does  not  make  pork  as  tough  as  beef  and  mutton. 
Juiciness  and  color  are  less  variable  in  pork  than  in  other  meats. 

In  1915,  the  U.  S.  Office  of  Markets  and  Rural  Organiza- 
tion* conducted  an  investigation  which  indicated  that  35  per 
cent,  of  the  hog  crop  is  marketed  in  the  fall,  41  per  cent,  in  the 
winter,  18  per  cent,  in  the  spring,  and  6  per  cent,  in  the  summer. 
About  60  per  cent,  of  the  annual  pig  crop  is  farrowed  in  March, 
April,  and  May,  and  is  sent  to  market  from  eight  to  ten  months 
later  weighing  from  200  to  250  pounds  or  over.  The  largest 
supply  of  hogs  on  the  market  occurs  in  November,  December, 
and  January.  Lowest  prices  most  frequently  occur  in  Decem- 
ber and  January.  Highest  prices  are  usually  made  in  March 
and  April  and  in  September  and  October,  due  to  the  relatively 
small  number  of  hogs  received  in  these  months.  Light  hogs 
are  normally  at  a  higher  price  level  than  heavy  hogs  during 
spring  and  summer  when  there  is  a  demand  for  fresh  meats,  but 
in  the  winter  packing  season  heavy  hogs  bring  the  highest  price. 


*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Report  113. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 
BREEDING  FOR  THE  MARKET. 

Hog  raising  has  always  been  a  profitable  and  favorite  de- 
partment of  farming  in  the  United  States.  In  colonial  times 
pork  production  was  a  very  simple  matter.  Hogs  were  allowed 
to  run  wild  in  the  woods  where  they  fed  upon  roots  and  nat- 
ural grasses  and  fattened  upon  acorns  and  beech  and  hickory 
nuts,  called  "mast."  The  only  expense  to  the  farmer  was  the 
winter  feeding  of  those  too  young  for  market  and  of  those  reserved 


Fig.  104.     An  Excellent  Boar. 

Duroc-Jersey  boar,  Good  Enuff  Again,  Champion  at  the  Ohio  State 
Fair.  Owned  by  W.  H.  Robbins,  Springfield,  Ohio.  This  boar  has  size, 
bone,  masculinity,  a  good  back,  great  heart-girth,  excellent  feeding  capacity, 
smoothness,  and  quality.  He  weighed  1000  pounds. 

for  breeding  purposes.  Inasmuch  as  Indian  corn  was  the  feed 
used  and  as  this  cereal  would  not  repay  the  expense  of  trans- 
portation to  market  until  the  introduction  of  railways,  it  cost 
very  little  to  produce  pork.  Even  after  the  organization  of 
the  national  government  and  the  settling  of  the  Middle  West 
it  was  the  general  impression  among  farmers  that  it  cost  nothing 
for  a  man  to  make  his  own  pork,  and  for  a  long  time  large  num- 
bers of  dressed  hogs  were  sold  in  that  section  of  the  country 

332 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         333 

at  prices  ranging  from  seventy-five  cents  to  one  dollar  per  cwt. 
and  were  considered  sufficiently  remunerative  at  these  figures. 

As  greater  areas  came  under  cultivation  and  the  natural 
forests  became  more  restricted,  it  was  found  more  profitable 
and  convenient  to  feed  hogs  on  corn  than  to  turn  them  out 
into  the  woods,  as  they  grew  faster  and  took  on  more  fat.  It 
was  at  this  stage  in  the  development  of  the  American  swine 
industry  that  pork  packing  was  commenced,  and  this  gave  a 
pronounced  impetus  to  hog  production.  This  was  before  the 
days  of  railroads,  and  hogs  were  taken  overland  in  droves  to 
the  nearest  packing  point.  Later,  when  the  railroads  came, 
a  great  saving  was  effected  by  eliminating  losses  due  to  the 
giving  out  of  hogs  on  the  route,  and  pork  packing  and  hog  rais- 
ing received  an  impulse  that  has  greatly  helped  to  make  pork 
one  of  the  most  important  staples  of  the  country. 

The  census  found  26,000,000  hogs  in  the  United  States  in 
1840,  33,500,000  in  1860,  47,700,000  in  1880,  57,400,000  in  1890, 
and  62,900,000  in  1900.  In  1910  the  census  changed  from  June 
1  to  April  15,  and  the  swine  enumerators  found  only  58,200,000. 
If,  however,  the  number  of  hogs  found  on  that  date  increased 
to  the  number  estimated  to  exist  on  the  following  1st  of 
June,  the  swine  on  farms  in  1910,  June  1,  probably  numbered 
69,200,000.  The  58,200,000  swine  found  by  enumerators  April  15, 
1910,  had  increased,  according  to  estimates  of  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  to  65,400,000  in  1912,  but  the  unusual  prev- 
alence of  hog  cholera  in  1913  reduced  the  number  to  58,900,000 
in  1914.  In  1915,  the  estimated  number  was  64,600,000;  in 
1916,  68,000,000;  in  1917,  67,500,000;  in  1918,  71,000,000;  and 
in  1919,  75,600,000.  From  the  earliest  record  there  has  been  a 
persistent  course  of  increase  of  swine  in  the  United  States. 

The  United  States  is  the  outstanding  country  of  the  world 
in  pork  production.  The  leading  countries  in  numbers  of  hogs, 
according  to  the  latest  available  figures,  are  as  follows: 

United  States,  1919 75,587,000  Spain,  1916 2,814,000 

Brazil,  1916 17,329,000  United  Kingdom,  1918 2,809,000 

Germany,  1915 17,287,000  Philippines,  1915 2,521,000 

Russia  and  Poland,  1914. .  .12,033,000  Venezuela,  1912 1,618,000 

Hungary,  1913 6,825,000  Belgium,  1913 1,412,000 

Italy,  1914 6,646,000  Roumania,  1916 1,382,000 

Austria,  1910 6,432,000  Portugal,  1908 1,300,000 

Canada,  1918 4,290,000  Netherlands,  1917 1,185,000 

France,  1917 4,200,000  British  South  Africa,  1911 . .  1,111,000 

Asiatic  Russia,  1914 2,962,000  Sweden,  1917 1,030,000 

Argentina,  1918 2,901,000  Australia,  1916 1,007,000 


334         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  distribution  of  hogs  (on  farms)  in  the  United  States 
on  January  1,  1919,  was  as  follows: 

North  Atlantic  Division 3,059,000 

South  Atlantic  Division 9,164,000 

North  Central,  East  of  Mississippi  River 18,194,000 

North  Central,  West  of  Mississippi  River 27,393,000 

South  Central  Division 14,918,000 

Far  Western  Division 2,859,000 

Total 75,587,000 

As  hogs  are  now  distributed  throughout  the  geographic 
divisions,  the  North  Central  States,  extending  from  Ohio  to  the 
western  line  of  Kansas,  contain  60  per  cent,  of  the  national 
total;  the  Southern  States,  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the 
western  line  of  Texas,  have  32  per  cent,  of  the  total;  the  re- 
maining 8  per  cent,  are  in  the  East  and  in  the  Far  Western 
States. 

The  ten  leading  states  and  the  number  of  hogs  in  each  on 
January  1,  1919,  were  as  follows: 

1.  Iowa . .  10,925,000  6.  Nebraska . .  . .  4,250,000 

2.  Illinois 5,724,000      7.  Georgia 3,043,000 

3.  Missouri 4,943,000      8.  Minnesota 2,784,000 

4.  Indiana 4,668,000      9.  Kansas 2,381,000 

5.  Ohio 4,266,000     10.  Texas 2,320,000 

The  states  of  the  Mississippi  valley  play  a  very  important 
part  in  the  swine  growing  industry  of  the  world.  No  other 
region  is  so  favored  as  is  the  corn  growing  region  of  the  United 
States. 

As  previously  mentioned,  hog  production  in  the  United 
States  is  closely  allied  with  corn  production;  in  fact,  hogs  are 
more  closely  allied  with  corn  than  are  any  other  of  our  farm 
animals.  Dairy  cattle  approach  hogs  in  this  regard,  followed 
by  horses,  beef  cattle,  and  sheep  in  the  order  named.  The 
writer  has  determined  the  average  rank  of  the  various  states 
in  corn  production  for  the  nine-year  period  from  1907  to  1915 
inclusive.  Similar  average  rankings  in  each  kind  of  live  stock 
were  determined  for  each  state,  based  on  the  number  of  animals 
in  each  state  on  January  1,  from  1908  to  1916  inclusive.  For 
example,  Kansas'  average  rank  in  corn  during  this  period  was 
8th.,  in  hogs,  8th.,  in  dairy  cattle,  llth.;  in  horses,  4th.;  in  beef 
cattle,  4th.;  and  in  sheep,  30th.  Thus,  Kansas'  rank  in  hogs 
did  not  vary  from  her  rank  in  corn;  in  dairy  cattle  she  varied 
3  points  from  corn;  in  horses,  4  points;  in  beef  cattle,  4  points; 
and  in  sheep,  22  points.  If  the  number  of  points  between  hogs 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


335 


and  corn  in  each  state  are  added  together,  we  find  that  hogs 
varied  196  points  from  corn  in  the  forty-eight  states;  dairy 
cattle  varied  233  points  from  corn;  horses,  401  points;  beef  cat- 
tle, 489  points;  and  sheep,  788  points. 

The  average  rank  of  the  states  in  corn,  hogs,  and  sheep 
for  the  nine  years  is  herewith  presented  graphically.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  in  only  four  states  do  sheep  rank  closer  to  corn 
than  do  hogs.  These  are  New  Hampshire,  Pennsylvania, 
Michigan,  and  Wisconsin.  In  Rhode  Island  and  North  Dakota 


Fig.  105.     Pork  Production  in  United  States  Closely  Related  to 
Corn  Production. 

These  graphs  show  the  average  rank  of  the  various  states  in  corn  produc- 
tion from  1907  to  1915,  and  in  numbers  of  hogs  and  sheep  on  January  1,  from 
1908  to  1916  inclusive.  Hogs  are  closely  related  to  corn,  followed  by  dairy 
cattle,  horses,  beef  cattle,  and  sheep  in  the  order  named.  Sheep  raising 
has  practically  no  dependence  on  corn  production. 

sheep  and  hogs  vary  an  equal  number  of  points  from  the  rank 
in  corn.  In  each  of  the  remaining  forty- two  states,  hogs  rank 
closer  to  corn  than  do  sheep.  Notice  how  closely  corn  and  hogs 
are  associated  in  the  first  eight  states.  There  seems  to  be  no 
correlation  between  sheep  and  corn. 


336         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

When  the  United  States  was  settled,  swine  were  brought 
over  from  Europe,  but  conditions  here,  and  especially  in  the 
cornbelt,  were  very  different,  and  the  character  of  the  hog  was 
changed  to  meet  the  demand  as  it  developed  under  the  different 
conditions.  The  new  type  of  hog  which  was  then  originated 
was  what  is  called  the  fat  or  lard  hog.  There  were  three  prin- 
cipal reasons  for  its  development.  These  were  (1)  the  abun- 
dance and  good  fattening  qualities  of  corn,  (2)  the  home  de- 
mand for  cured  meats,  and  (3)  the  foreign  demand  for  cheap 
meats. 

1.  Corn  is  a  plant  native  to  America,  and  in  the  corn- 
belt  can  be  produced  with  much  less  cost  than  can  any  of  the 
other  grains.     The  United  States  produces  three-fourths  of  the 
world's  corn  crop.     It  is  a  feed  comparatively  rich  in  carbo- 
hydrates  and    much    lacking   in   protein.     Carbohydrates   are 
used  in  the  animal  body  for  building  up  fat  and  to  furnish  the 
fuel  that  is  used  in  the  production  of  physical  energy.     Protein 
is  that  part  of  a  food  material  that  is  rich  in  nitrogen  and  is  used 
principally  to  build  up  muscle  or  lean  meat.     Since  corn  is  the 
principal  feed  for  swine  in  the  United  States,  it  is  only  the  nat- 
ural consequence  that  our  hogs  are  of  the  fat  or  lard  type. 

2.  In  the  earlier  history  of  the  United  States,  very  few, 
if  any,  of  the  frontier  sections  had  railroad  facilities,  so  could 
not  import  fresh  meats;  neither  had  they  facilities  for  local 
production  of  meats.     Then  again,  these  places,  and  especially 
the  lumber  camps,  used  a  great  deal  of  meat,  and  it  had  to  be 
of  such  a  nature  that  it  could  be  hauled  long  distances  on  wagons 
and  be  capable  of  long  storage  after  reaching  its  destination. 
The  most  satisfactory  meat  for  this  purpose  was  mess  pork. 
There  are  two  reasons  why  fat  salt  pork  was  better  than  lean 
salt  pork,     (a)     Fat  pork  does  not  become  so  salty  on  being 
pickled  as  does  lean  pork.     It  is  not  so  thoroughly  penetrated 
by  the  salt,  therefore  it  is  more  palatable  after  long  storage 
than  is  lean  pork,  which  also  requires  a  larger  quantity  of  salt, 
and  is  not  so  well  preserved  as  is  the  fat  pork,     (b)  Fat  pork 
was  better  both  from  the  employer's  and  the  consumer's  point 
of  view,  because  on  account  of  its  fatty  nature,  it  contains  two 
and  one-fourth  times  as  much  energy  per  unit  of  weight  as  does 
lean  pork,  therefore  making  a  cheaper  article  on  the  bill  of  fare, 
also  furnishing  sufficient  energy  to  the  laborer  who  was  toiling 
hard  in  cold  winter  weather.     The  following  table  giving  analyses 
and  fuel  values  of  a  number  of  common  foods  shows  the  high 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


337 


fuel  value  of  pork  products.     It  will  also  be  noticed  that  the 
foods  with  the  largest  fat  content  have  the  highest  fuel  value: 


Foods 

Analy- 
ses 

Refuse 

I 
Water 

Pro- 
tein 

Fat 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drate 

Ash 

Fuel 
value  per 
pound  — 
calories* 

Lard,  refined 

Per 
cent. 

Per 
cent. 

Per 
cent. 

Per 
cent. 
100  0 

Per 
cent. 

Per 
cent. 

4220 

Back  fat  —  hog  .  .  . 
Salt  pork 

3 
6 



7.7 
7  3 

2.3 

1  8 

89.9 
87.2 



.1 
3  7 

3835 
3715 

Bacon,  smoked  .  . 

13 

8  1 

17.8 

9.6 

60.2 

4.3 

2720 

Mess  beef  
Oatmeal  

2 
13 

10.5 

33.0 

7.2 

10.7 
15.6 

39.9 
7.3 

68.6 

5.9 
1.9 

1885 
1860 

Starch  

98.0 

1825 

Entire  wheat  flour 
Corn  meal,  bolted. 

5 
9 



12.1 
12.9 

14.2 

8.9 

1.9 
2.2 

70.6 

75.1 

1.2 

.9 

1660 
1655 

Mutton  loin,  with- 
out kidney  and 
tallow  

15 

14  2 

40  5 

12  8 

31.9 

.6 

1585 

Bread,  white  
Beef  loin,  boneless 
strip  

108 
6 

35.4 
60.7 

9.5 
18.9 

1.2 
19.5 

52.8 

1.1 
.9 

1205 
1175 

Ribs  

28 

20.2 

44.9 

13.6 

20.6 

.7 

1120 

Leg  of  lamb  

4 

13.8 

50.3 

15.3 

19.7 

.9 

1115 

Round  
Hens'  eggs  

44 

8.5 
10  5 

63.0 
66  0 

18.7 
13  1 

8.8 
9  5 



1.0 
9 

720 
645 

Apples,  fresh  
Vegetable  SOUD  .  . 

10 
1 

25.0 

61.5 
95.7 

.4 
2.9 

.4 

12.4 
.5 

.3 
.9 

255 
65 

*Heat  and  muscular  work  are  forms  of  force  or  energy.  The  energy  is 
developed  as  the  food  is  consumed  in  the  body.  The  unit  commonly  used  in 
this  measurement  is  the  calorie,  the  amount  of  heat  which  would  raise  the 
temperature  of  a  pound  of  water  4  degrees  F. 

3.  There  was  a  foreign  demand  by  the  poorer  classes  of 
people  for  cheaper  meats  than  could  be  supplied  by  their  high- 
priced  bacon  industry.  This  cheaper  meat  could  be  supplied 
in  the  form  of  fat  pork  made  from  low-priced  corn,  and  at  the 
same  time  could  be  furnished  at  a  profit. 

From  these  various  causes  it  is  clearly  evident  that  the 
fat  or  lard  hog  of  the  United  States  was  produced  not  only 
because  he  could  be  produced  more  cheaply  than  the  bacon 
hog,  but  also  because  there  was  a  demand  for  just  such  a  hog. 

In  the  United  States  the  slaughtered  swine  were  79.8  per 
cent,  of  the  total  stock  of  hogs  on  hand  in  1900,  and  76.9  per 
cent,  in  1910.  In  1910,  233  pounds  of  pork  were  produced  per 
head  of  stock  of  hogs  on  hand  over  3^  months  old  April  15. 
The  importance  of  swine  as  meat  producers  is  emphasized  by 
these  figures. 

Size  in  market  hogs. — Some  of  the  weights  of  hogs  mar- 
keted at  Cincinnati  in  the  early  days  serve  to  show  rather  strik- 


338         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

ingly  that  market  hogs,  like  market  cattle,  have  undergone  an 
evolution  from  immense  weights  in  the  early  days  to  the  handy- 
weight  market  animal  of  the  present  time.  In  1857  the  follow- 
ing records  of  weights  were  made  on  the  Cincinnati  market: 

Number  of  hogs  Net  weight  Average  per  hog 

3  2,301  710 

5  3,200  640 

7  5,040  720 

22  8,866  403 

50  18,750  375 

52  19,604  377 

320  104,000  325 

657  200,355  305 


1,116  361,846  324 

In  1866  these  weights  were  exceeded  as  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing records  for  that  year: 

Number  of  hogs  Net  weight               Average  per  hog 

11  6,732  612 

20  15,452  772 

30  15,180  506 

35  15,785  451 

35  15,712  449 

43  15,738  366 

107  43,014  402 

200  71,800  359 

346  139,092  402 

400  150,000  375 


1,227  488,505  398 

Of  the  lot  of  twenty  included  above  it  was  said:  "The 
lot  of  twenty,  raised  and  fed  for  market  in  our  county  (Ham- 
ilton County,  Ohio)  has  certainly  no  parallel  in  the  wide  world, 
none  of  the  hogs  exceeding  19  months  of  age,  and  generally 
running  from  15  to  16  months  old." 

Wren  and  Schaffer  of  Middletown,  Ohio,  packed  in  1870 
a  lot  of  thirty-eight  Poland-China  hogs  averaging  613  pounds 
gross  at  21  months  old,  all  fattened  by  one  man  in  Butler  County. 
Following  are  records  of  a  large  number  of  hogs  (Poland-Chinas) 
raised  in  Butler  County,  Ohio,  and  sold  to  packers  in  1870: 

Average  gross 
weight 

501 
536 

493 
490 
713 

773 


Number  of 
hogs 

80. 

Average  gross  Number  of 
weight            hogs 

..574                20  

40  

..516                45  

38  
48  
42..  

570                75  
513                60  
517                40  

40.. 

.  .  504                 12  .. 

TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         339 

There  is  record  of  one  lot  of  30  Poland-Chinas  marketed 
in  1870  that  averaged  gross  384  pounds  at  eleven  months  of 
age,  while  another  lot  of  ten  of  the  same  breed  and  age  mar- 
keted in  that  year  averaged  410  pounds  gross. 

The  immense  weights  of  earlier  times  were  made  possible 
by  cheap  corn,  by  the  premium  paid  for  heavy  hogs  by  packers 
in  those  days,  and  by  selecting  hogs  of  great  weight  for  breeding 
purposes.  During  late  years  the  tendency  has  been  to  market 
handy-weight  hogs,  and  fewer  heavy  hogs  appear  on  the  market 
each  year.  This  change  has  been  brought  about  by  the  high 
price  of  corn,  by  improved  methods  of  packing  which  permit 
hogs  of  less  fatness  and  lighter  weight  to  find  favor  with  packers, 
by  the  general  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  consumer  to  favor 
light  cuts,  and  by  the  growing  demand  for  bacon  in  place  of  the 
old-fashioned,  heavy,  salt  meats.  The  breeder  also  has  played 
a  part  in  this  change  to  the  handy-weight  market  hog,  by  giving 
preference  to  hogs  of  quality  and  smoothness  over  those  of  large 
size  and  tending  toward  roughness  and  lack  of  quality.  In 
recent  years  some  breeds  actually  deteriorated  because  of  the 
fact  that  most  of  the  breeders  went  too  far  in  the  matter  of 
securing  quality  and  refinement  in  their  animals  and  failed  to 
keep  up  enough  size  and  constitution  to  suit  the  practical  hog 
grower.  This  mistake  was  realized  and  today  the  effort  is  being 
made  to  get  back  on  safer  ground  by  breeding  for  all  the  size 
possible  and  yet  maintain  a  proper  degree  of  quality  in  the 
animal.  The  ideal  hog  for  the  farmer  is  a  medium- weight  hog, 
or  a  hog  slightly  above  what  would  be  called  medium  weight, 
possessing  desirable  quality,  smoothness,  and  symmetry. 

Selection  of  breeding  stock. — The  points  which  should  re- 
ceive particular  attention  in  selecting  hogs  for  breeding  purposes 
are  (1)  size,  (2)  feeding  capacity,  (3)  constitution  and  vigor, 
(4)  quick  maturity,  (5)  strength  of  back,  legs,  pasterns,  and 
feet,  (6)  quality,  (7)  breeding  qualities,  (8)  uniformity  of  type, 
and  (9)  ancestry. 

1.  Under  present  conditions,  the  most  profitable  stage  for 
the  grower  to  market  lard  hogs  is  between  200  and  275  pounds. 
Nevertheless,  hogs  used  for  breeding  purposes  should  have 
plenty  of  size  combined  with  desirable  type  and  early  matur- 
ity. If  the  breeding  stock  is  of  large  size,  the  pigs  will  be 
growthy  and  will  attain  marketable  weights  in  quick  time.  The 
cheapest  gains  are  made  during  the  growing  period.  This  is 
shown  by  the  following  compilation  presented  by  Henry  and 


340         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Morrison*  which  summarizes  over  500  American  feeding  trials 
with  more  than  2,200  hogs: 

Weight  of  hogs  Pounds  feed  for 

100  pounds  gain 

100—150  pounds 437  pounds 

150—200  pounds 482  pounds 

200—250  pounds 498  pounds 

250—300  pounds 511  pounds 

300—350  pounds . 535  pounds 

The  risk  of  loss  from  disease  is  lessened  in  marketing  younger 
hogs,  and  the  farmer  gets  a  quicker  turnover  of  his  capital. 

The  most  profitable  hog  is  one  that  inherits  the  ability  to 
grow  to  large  size,  but  which  will  fatten  if  desired  long  before 
the  limit  of  growth  is  reached.  It  is  desirable,  therefore,  to  set 
the  standard  for  matured  weight  as  high  as  is  consistent  with 
proper  form,  quick  maturity,  and  quality.  For  boars  in  high 
condition,  the  standard  may  be  set  at  800  pounds  or  over  without 
necessarily  sacrificing  other  desirable  qualities.  Sows  in  high 
condition  should  weigh  not  less  than  600  pounds.  By  proper 
selection  and  by  improved  methods  of  feeding  and  management, 
these  weights  may  be  equalled  or  surpassed.  It  is  not  desirable 
to  keep  breeding  stock  in  high  condition,  but  the  term  "breeding 
condition"  has  such  a  variable  meaning  that  it  cannot  be  used 
satisfactorily  as  a  basis  for  weights.  In  breeding  condition, 
boars  and  sows  will  weigh  considerably  less  than  800  pounds  and 
600  pounds  respectively,  but  they  should  have  enough  size  of 
frame  and  capacity  for  taking  on  flesh  to  enable  them  to  reach 
these  weights  if  they  were  fed  to  high  condition. 

2.  Feeding  capacity  is  indicated  by  length,  depth,  width, 
and  fullness  of  middle.  Some  degree  of  paunchiness  may  be 
accepted  as  evidence  of  feeding  capacity.  A  wide  head,  promi- 
nent poll,  well-developed  jaw,  a  mild  eye,  and  a  short  neck  are 
further  indications  of  a  good  feeder. 

3/  Constitution  and  vigor  are  indicated  by  width  and 
depth  of  chest,  a  large  heart-girth,  good  spring  of  rib,  large 
feeding  capacity,  and  a  strong  appetite.  A  general  appearance 
of  strength  and  ruggedness  without  coarseness,  an  active  walk, 
a  bright,  open  eye,  a  healthy  skin,  and  abundant,  glossy  hair 
are  other  evidences  of  constitution,  thrift,  and  vigor. 

4.  A  quick-maturing  hog  is  one  that  makes  a  fast  growth, 
yet  can  be  fattened  off  at  market  weight.  Such  hogs  are  ready 


*  Feeds  and  Feeding,  p.  569. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


341 


for  market  in  quick  time  and  at  low  cost.  This  quality  is  pos- 
sessed in  greatest  degree  by  hogs  descended  from  breeding  stock 
of  large  size  that  are  broad  backed,  deep,  full-made,  and  not 
too  long  of  body  and  legs.  Some  hogs  will  grow  big  enough 
and  weigh  well  for  their  age,  but,  lacking  the  proper  form,  they 
do  not  fatten  readily  and  cannot  be  finished  at  desired  market 
weights. 

5.  A  low  back  is  a  bad  fault  in  a  breeding  animal.  It  is 
a  weakness  which  is  as  liable  to  be  transmitted  to  offspring  as 
any  other  good  or  bad  quality.  The  boar  should  stand  on 


Fig.  106.     Good  Type  in  the  Breeding  Boar. 

Chester  White  boar,  Champion  at  the  Iowa  State  Fair  in  1913. 
by  Mr.  A.  B.  Somerville,  Monroe,  la. 


Owned 


large,  strong  bone,  this  being  one  evidence  of  masculinity,  but 
extremely  large,  rough  bone,  covered  with  a  thick,  puffy  skin  is 
undesirable,  indicating  coarseness.  The  breeding  sow  should 
show  greater  refinement  of  bone  than  the  boar,  yet  it  should  be 
amply  sufficient  to  sustain  not  only  her  weight  but  also  the  added 
weight  imposed  by  pregnancy  and  large  litters.  Fine  shank 
bones  are  not  objectionable  because  they  are  liable  to  be  frac- 
tured by  the  weight  of  the  sow,  but  because  extremely  fine  bone 
is  associated  with  small,  weak  tendons  and  ligaments  which 
permit  the  pastern  to  drop  down  and  the  toes  to  spread  apart, 


342 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


thus  making  the  legs  weak  and  greatly  lessening  the  usefulness 
of  the  animal.  Proper  feed  during  the  growing  period  and 
sufficient  exercise  are  other  factors  which  have  much  to  do  with 
the  strength  of  feet  and  legs.  Sickled  hind  legs,  bowed-out 
hocks,  inbent  knees,  and  other  deformities  should  be  avoided, 
particularly  in  selecting  a  boar. 

6.  A  reasonable  degree  of  quality,  as  indicated  by  smooth- 
ness of  form  and  flesh  and  by  trimness  of  appearance,  is  some- 
thing of  an  evidence  of  good  breeding  and  must  be  shown  in 
breeding  stock  if  it  is  to  be  shown  in  their  pigs  on  the  market. 
The  butcher  desires  a  very  high  degree  of  quality  and  refine- 


Fig.  107.     Good  Type  in  the  Breeding  Sow. 

Hampshire  sow,  Gloria  2d.,  Champion  at  the  Iowa  State  Fair  in  1914. 
Owned  by  Mr.  Russell  Yates,  Palo,  la. 

ment  in  head,  ear,  hide,  hair,  bone,  and  fleshing,  but  does  not 
pay  enough  premium  for  it  to  justify  the  producer  in  emphasiz- 
ing quality  too  strongly.  As  pointed  out  near  the  end  of  the 
preceding  chapter,  the  value  of  a  hog  on  the  market  is  deter- 
mined very  largely  by  his  weight,  without  much  regard  to  fat- 
ness and  quality.  However,  a  fair  degree  of  quality  is  char- 
acteristic of  the  easy-feeding,  quick-maturing  hog.  The  breeder 
should  select  for  as  much  quality  in  breeding  stock  as  may  be 
had  without  sacrifice  of  proper  size,  constitution,  and  strength 
of  bone. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        343 

The  skin  over  the  shoulders  of  mature  boars  is  thicker  and 
heavier  than  on  sows  or  barrows.  This  character  is  called  the 
shields,  and  was  a  highly  useful  feature  in  the  wild  boar  as  a 
protection  in  fighting.  The  wild  boar  has  transmitted  this 
character  in  greater  or  less  degree  to  his  domesticated  descend- 
ants. In  some  instances  the  thickening  and  hardening  of  the 
skin  is  so  great  as  to  produce  pronounced  callouses,  and  these 
are  objectionable.  A  smooth  shoulder  is  desired  in  the  boar 
as  well  as  in  the  sow  and  barrow. 

7.  Great  variation  in  prolificacy  exists  between  individual 
sows  of  the  same  breed.     There  are  also  some  rather  marked 
differences  between  breeds.     The  number  of  pigs  per  litter  varies 
from  one  to  sixteen  or  more,  but  with  good  management  is 
usually  from  six  to  ten  and  under  ordinary  farm  conditions 
averages  about  seven  or  eight.     It  is  well  to  remember,  however, 
that  it  is  the  number  of  pigs  raised,  rather  than  the  number 
farrowed,  which  is  most  important.     Sows  that  are  irregular 
breeders,  difficult  to  get  in  pig,  not  prolific,  poor  sucklers,  or 
that  lie  on  their  pigs  should  be  sent  to  market.     Short-middled 
sows  of  the  chunky  type  are  usually  lacking  in  prolificacy  and 
milking  qualities.    Size,  stretch,  roominess  and  a  mild  disposi- 
tion are  essential  to  good  brood  sows.    Their  udders  should 
include  twelve  or  more  well-developed  glands  and  teats. 

Masculine,  vigorous  boars  are  quick  and  sure  breeders. 
Motherly-  or  matronly-looking  sows  are  the  most  satisfactory- 
breeders  and  best  mothers. 

8.  The  breeding  herd  should  be  kept  as  uniform  in  size, 
form,  color,  and  other  points  as  possible  in  order  that  the  pigs 
may  acquire  a  finish  at  about  the  same  time  and  present  a  uni- 
form and  attractive  appearance  in  the  feed-lot  and  on  the  market. 

9.  A  good  ancestry  back  of  a  young  boar  or  sow  is  the 
best  possible  guarantee  that  it  will  develop  into  a  useful  breed- 
ing animal.     Between  two  hogs  equal  in  individuality,  one  the 
best  pig  from  a  poor  litter  and  a  poor  ancestry,  and  the  other 
the  worst  pig  from  a  good  litter  and  a  good  ancestry,  there  is 
almost  certain  to  be  a  marked  advantage  in  favor  of  the  latter 
as  a  breeder.     Particularly  in  selecting  boars  is  it  important 
to  buy  from  a  good  herd,  and  to  select  pigs  from  a  large  litter, 
a  good  litter,  a  good  sire,  and  a  good  dam.     In  other  words, 
try  to  get  prolific  and  producing  blood,  blood  that  will  breed  on. 
In  breeding  for  the  market,  the  sows  should  be  purebreds  or 
high  grades.     None  other  than  a  good  purebred  boar  should 


344        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

be  used  on  any  herd.  In  hogs,  as  in  other  stock,  the  sire  is  at 
least  half  of  the  herd. 

The  sow  may  be  bred  when  eight  months  old,  farrowing 
her  first  litter  when  twelve  months  old.  If  well  fed  and  cared 
for,  she  will  raise  two  litters  per  year,  though  many  breeders 
believe  that  better  results  are  obtained  if  the  sow  raises  one 
Ikfeer  per  year,  or  at  most  three  litters  in  two  years.  The  average 
duration  of  pregnancy  in  swine  is  114  days.  Boars  eight  to 
ten  months  old  may  be  used  on  a  few  sows  if  they  are  well  de- 
veloped for  their  age  and  well  fed.  A  mature  boar  will  breed 
one  sow  a  day,  or  from  thirty  to  forty  sows  during  the  breeding 
season. 

With  no  other  kind  of  live  stock  is  there  practiced  so  much 
mixing  of  breeds  and  cross-breeding  as  in  the  breeding  of  hogs 
for  the  market.  It  is  very  commonly  believed  that  by  crossing 
a  boar  of  one  breed  upon  sows  of  another  breed,  more  vigorous 
and  growthy  offspring  will  result.  While  there  is  no  serious 
criticism  to  be  made  against  such  a  method  so  far  as  the  first 
cross  is  concerned,  it  invariably  happens  that  if  this  policy  is 
followed  up  and  further  crossing  and  mixing  is  resorted  to,  a 
variety  of  shapes  and  colors  is  presented  that  is  most  unattrac- 
tive as  compared  with  a  bunch  of  hogs  possessing  good  uniform- 
ity. In  the  majority  of  cases  it  will  be  most  profitable  to  pick 
out  one  of  the  standard  breeds  of  hogs  and  stick  to  that  breed 
year  after  year.  If  this  is  done  there  need  be  no  lack  of  vigor 
in  the  offspring  if  the  parent  stock  is  selected  with  due  care  as 
to  constitution  and  vigor. 


PART  FOUR. 
HORSES. 

INTRODUCTION. 

For  centuries  the  horse  has  been  a  faithful  servant  of  man 
in  the  capacity  of  a  burden  bearer.  "From  remotest  ages  he 
has  come  with  man,  side  by  side,  in  the  glory  and  achievements 
of  the  white  race.  In  all  the  darings  and  doings  of  the  Saxon, 
wherever  countries  were  to  be  conquered,  battles  fought,  and 
the  banner  of  Britain  carried  round  the  world,  wherever  has 
been  a  footprint,  there  also  was  the  hoof -beat."*  As  compared 
with  other  domesticated  animals,  the  horse  is  peculiar  in  his 
relation  to  man,  for  he  is  valuable  on  account  of  his  ability  to 
do  work  and  not  because  he  furnishes  a  tangible  product  use- 
ful as  food  or  otherwise.  It  is  his  athletic  ability  which  makes 
the  horse  useful. 

None  other  of  our  domestic  animals  occupies  as  important 
a  place  in  the  economy  of  things  as  does  the  horse;  if  all  the 
horses  were  suddenly  taken  from  the  nations  of  the  world,  agri- 
culture, business,  and  commerce  would  be  seriously  impaired 
and  we  would  soon  be  in  a  state  of  famine.  Consider  the  vast 
number  of  horses  in  use  on  farms,  on  city  streets,  on  country 
roads,  in  armies,  and  for  numerous  pleasure  purposes,  such  as 
riding,  driving,  racing  in  harness  and  under  saddle,  hunting, 
and  polo.  We  could  give  up  any  of  the  other  domesticated 
animals  with  much  less  serious  results,  and  this  in  spite  of  the 
advent  and  improvement  of  the  automobile,  motor  truck,  and 
tractor,  and  their  wide  use  at  the  present  time. 

The  horse  may  be  said  to  be  a  locomotive  which  consumes 
hay  and  grain  instead  of  coal.  He  is  self-feeding,  self -con- 
trolling, and  self-reproducing,  and  is  at  the  same  time  a  very 
efficient  motor.  Farmers  who  use  horses  may  be  compared 
to  the  engineer  who  operates  a  motor.  Farmers  who  breed 
horses  may  be  compared  to  the  manufacturer  of  motors.  No 
man  can  manufacture  or  operate  a  motor  with  real  success 

*  John  Trotwood  Moore,  in  The  Gift  of  the  Grass. 

345 


346         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

unless  he  understands  its  construction,  the  importance  of  its 
various  parts,  their  strength  or  weakness,  and  their  relation  to 
one  another.  No  man  can  learn  the  construction  of  a  motor 
by  studying  its  exterior  only;  he  must  take  it  apart  and  study 
the  various  parts,  and  then  put  them  together  again.  Then 
he  must  put  it  in  motion  and  study  the  action  of  the  various 
levers,  pulleys,  and  springs,  in  order  that  he  may  know  the 
location  of  weaknesses  and  at  what  points  the  most  wear  comes. 
Knowing  these  things,  he  can  manufacture  a  motor  of  high 
efficiency,  or,  operating  one,  he  can  obtain  from  it  the  greatest 
amount  of  work  with  least  danger  of  injuring  the  machine. 
Hence  we  see  how  important  is  a  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of 
the  horse  as  a  basis  for  the  study  of  types  of  horses  and  the  re- 
quirements and  capabilities  of  each  type. 

It  is  not  possible  to  develop  a  good  judge  of  any  kind  of 
live  stock  by  teaching  simply  what  to  look  for  in  an  animal. 
A  mere  description  of  parts  or  points  is  not  sufficient.  The 
student  wants  to  know  why  certain  things  are  desirable  in  an 
animal,  and  why  certain  other  things  are  undesirable.  He 
must  know  the  ''why"  of  each  point  if  he  is  to  value  each  point 
properly  and  put  emphasis  where  it  belongs.  This  is  especially 
true  in  learning  to  judge  horses.  No  matter  how  carefully  the 
points  to  be  looked  for  in  feet  and  legs  are  described,  the  student 
cannot  recognize  the  importance  of  these  parts  and  know  what 
constitutes  a  first-class  foot  and  leg,  unless  he  has  a  fairly  good 
idea  of  their  anatomy  and  physiology.  In  the  pages  which 
follow,  the  writer  has,  therefore,  given  considerable  attention 
to  some  of  the  essential  features  of  horse  anatomy  before  enter- 
ing upon  a  description  of  the  various  types  and  market  classes 
of  horses. 

Definition  of  Horse  Terms. 

Stallion. — Breeding  male. 

Mare. — The  female. 

Colt. — A  young  stallion. 

Filly. — A  young  mare. 

Foal. — Colt  or  filly  under  one  year  old. 

Weanling. — A  weaned  foal. 

Gelding. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  under  two  years  old. 
The  best  age  to  castrate  colts  is  at  one  year  old  after  they  have 
been  on  pasture  a  few  weeks  but  before  fly-time.  In  the  corn- 
belt  the  best  time  to  castrate  is  the  latter  part  of  May. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        347 

Stag. — Unsexed  male,  castrated  when  mature  or  so  far 
advanced  toward  maturity  that  masculinity  is  plainly  evident 
in  head  and  neck.  This  constitutes  coarseness  in  a  horse  for 
harness  or  saddle  use. 

Yeld  mare. — A  mare  that  has  not  raised  a  foal  during  the 
season;  a  dry  mare. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 
BRIEF    ANATOMICAL    STUDY    OF    THE    HORSE. 

In  all  animal  life  the  cell  is  the  structural  and  functional 
unit.  A  tissue  is  a  collection  of  similarly  differentiated  cells. 
A  number  of  tissues  grouped  together  form  an  organ.  The 
body  is  an  aggregation  of  organs.  We  feed  a  horse  to  produce 
tissue  and  to  produce  energy.  The  systems  of  organs  are  seven 
in  number.  They  are  (1)  skeletal,  (2)  muscular,  (3)  digestive, 
(4)  respiratory,  (5)  genito-urinary,  (6)  nervous,  and  (7)  integu- 
mentary. 

Skeletal  system. — The  skeletal  system  is  important  as  it 
largely  determines  the  conformation  of  the  horse.  The  skele- 
ton of  the  horse  is  composed  of  a  number  of  bony  segments, 
most  of  which  exist  in  pairs.  The  divisions  of  the  skeleton 
are  (1)  head,  (2)  neck,  (3)  trunk,  and  (4)  limbs.  The  head 
consists  of  numerous  bones,  mostly  flat,  united  by  sutures  which 
gradually  undergo  obliteration  with  age.  The  lower  jaws  are 
strong  and  in  each  jaw  there  are  six  molar  teeth  (24  in  all). 
Twelve  of  these  are  temporary — three  in  each  jaw,  and  known 
as  the  1st,  2nd,  and  3rd  molars,  while  the  4th,  5th,  and  6th  are 
permanent.  There  are  also  six  incisors  in  the  upper  and  six 
in  the  lower  jaw,  all  of  which  are  temporary  and  are  entirely 
replaced  by  the  time  the  animal  is  4^  years  old. 

The  vertebral  column  is  a  chain  of  54  to  56  irregular  bones 
(vertebrae)  extending  from  skull  to  end  of  tail.  There  are  seven 
cervical  (neck)  vertebrae,  18  dorsal  (back),  6  lumbar  (loin), 
5  sacral  (croup),  and  18  or  20  caudal  (tail)  vertebrae.  From 
above,  the  spinal  column  exhibits  a  concave  cervical  curve,  a 
convex  dorsal  curve,  a  nearly  straight  lumbar  region,  and  the 
sacro-caudal  curve  is  concave  below.  The  3rd,  4th,  and  5th 
dorsal  vertebrae  have  the  highest  spines  which  form  the  withers. 

There  are  18  pairs  of  ribs,  8  of  which  are  true  and  10  false. 
The  8  true  pairs  join  the  8  segments  of  the  sternum  or  breast 
bone.  The  7th  or  8th  ribs  are  longest.  There  is  no  collar 
bone  (clavicle)  as  in  man,  and  the  fore  limbs  are  not  attached 
to  the  trunk  but  are  connected  by  intervening  muscles.  The 
hind  limbs  are  united  to  the  trunk  by  the  pelvic  girdle  which, 
in  reality,  is  composed  of  three  segments  on  each  side. 

348 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


349 


Muscular  system. — The  horse  comprises  a  great  number 
of  systems  of  levers  represented  in  the  bones  and  joints,  each 
supplied  with  a  system  of  muscles  which  furnish  the  power. 
Muscles  exert  a  force  in  only  one  way,  and  that  by  shortening, 
giving  a  pull.  For  this  reason  muscles  are  arranged  in  pairs, 
as  illustrated  by  the  biceps  and  triceps  which  move  the  fore- 
arm in  man.  The  flexor  muscles  are  always  inside  the  joint 
and  the  extensors  outside.  The  theory  has  been  advanced 
that  the  shortening  of  muscles  is  due  to  a  change  in  the  form 
of  the  muscular  cell  from  an  elongated  form  to  one  nearly  round 


Fig.  108.     Skeleton  of  the  Horse. 

This  illustration  shows  the  location  of  the  bones  and  the  degree  to  which 
the  skeleton  and  the  muscle  influence  the  form. 

when  stimulated  by  nerve  action.  Muscles  act  through  very 
short  distances  and  upon  the  short  end  of  levers  composing 
the  animal  frame.  Acting  in  this  way,  speed  and  distance  are 
gained  with  a  corresponding  reduction  in  the  magnitude  of  the 
force.  Because  muscles  are  able  to  act  only  through  very 
short  distances,  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  act  upon  the  short 
end  of  the  levers  in  order  that  sufficiently  rapid  movement  may 
be  gained. 


350         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  muscular  system  obtains  its  maximum  development 
in  the  horse,  and  upon  the  excellence  of  this,  beauty  of  con- 
formation largely  depends.  Especially  is  this  latter  true  of 
the  neck  and  hindquarters.  The  muscles  of  the  back  and  loin 
are  the  largest  in  the  body.  There  are  no  muscles  below  the 
knees  and  hocks — only  their  tendinous  prolongations.  The 
first  muscle  under  the  skin  almost  covers  the  entire  body  and  is 
the  one  'that  enables  the  animal  to  shake  flies  or  any  irritating 
foreign  substance  off  its  skin. 

Digestive  system. — The  tongue  is  small  as  compared  with 
that  of  the  ox.  The  gullet  is  long  and  has  a  very  small  open- 
ing into  the  stomach.  The  capacity  of  the  stomach  is  small, 
holding  between  3  and  4  gallons,  while  the  stomach  of  the  ox 
holds  30  to  40  gallons.  But  the  small  size  of  the  organ  is  com- 
pensated for  by  the  large  size  and  capacity  of  the  intestines 
which  hold  twice  that  of  the  ox.  The  large  intestine  has  a 
capacity  of  about  20  gallons,  and  the  small  one  12  gallons.  The 
liver  is  large,  as  are  also  the  kidneys. 

Respiratory  system. — The  respiratory  organs  are  well 
developed,  and  comprise  the  nasal  cavities,  the  larynx,  the 
trachea,  the  bronchial  tubes,  and  lungs.  The  heart  is  large  and 
four  chambered,  and  the  blood  vessels  are  large  and  have  strong, 
thick  walls.  Thus  is  the  horse  well  fitted  for  his  athletic  life. 

Nervous  system. — The  nervous  system  of  the  horse  is  well 
developed  and  comprises  the  brain,  spinal  cord  and  branching 
nerves. 

Integumentary  system. — The  hair  or  coat  is  shed  in  the 
spring  and  autumn,  except  that  of  the  mane  and  tail  which  is 
permanent.  There  are  both  sweat  glands  and  sebaceous  glands 
in  the  skin,  but  the  former  are  practically  absent  from  the  limbs. 

In  judging  horses,  the  judge  takes  into  consideration  many 
matters  relating  to  the  structure  and  interior  of  the  animal, 
as  well  as  the  exterior.  A  wide,  deep  middle  and  a  broad  muz- 
zle, for  example,  indicate  great  digestive  capacity;  a  large  nos- 
tril and  large  chest  show  capacity  for  respiration;  a  silky  coat 
and  fine  skin  are  normal  qualities  of  the  integument,  while 
alertness  and  gracefulness  of  movement  are  evidences  of  good 
nervous  control. 

The  horse  differs  from  a  mere  machine  in  that  he  is  largely 
capable  of  guiding  his  own  movements  without  aid  from  his 
driver.  Training  accomplishes  much  in  this  regard,  but  the 
less  a  horse  is  possessed  of  intelligence  and  nervous  control,  the 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        351 

less  he  is  automatic  as  a  motor,  and  the  more  he  becomes  de- 
pendent upon  his  driver. 

Anatomy  of  the  Fore  Limb. 

From  the  top  downward,  the  bones  of  the  fore  limb  are 
as  indicated  in  the  accompanying  diagram.  The  fore  limb  is 
composed  of  a  scapula  (or  shoulder  blade)  which  is  articulated 
to  the  humerus  (or  arm)  by  a  ball-and-socket  joint,  and  the 
arm  in  turn  articulates  with  the  radius  by  a  hinge  joint.  The 
lower  end  of  the  radius  rests  upon  the  upper  row  of  the  carpal 
bones  of  which  there  are  7  or  8  in  the  horse,  corresponding  to 
the  wrist  in  man.  Below  the  carpus  (knee)  is  the  large  meat 


S-4 

— 5 


Fig.  109     Bones  of  the  Fore  Leg. 

1,  Scapula;  2,  humerus;  3,  radius  and  ulna;  4,  seven  or  eight  carpal  bones; 
5,  cannon  bone  and  two  splint  bones;  6,  two  sesamoid  bones;  7,  large  pastern 
bone;  8,  small  pastern  bone;  9,  navicular  bone;  10,  coffin  bone. 

carpal  (or  cannon)  bone,  and  articulated  with  the  back  of  it 
are  two  slender  rods  of  bones — the  small  metacarpal  (or  splint) 
bones.  The  lower  end  of  the  large  cannon  bone  forms  a  hinge 
with  the  first  phalanx  (or  large  pastern  bone),  which  is  followed 
by  the  second  phalanx  (or  small  pastern  bone),  and  then  the 
third  phalanx  (or  coffin  bone),  the  two  last  named  being  enclosed 
within  the  hoof.  In  addition  to  these,  at  the  articulation  be- 
tween the  cannon  and  the  large  pastern  bone  are  two  small 
bones,  known  as  the  sesamoids,  while  at  the  back  of  the  coffin 
joint  there  is  a  small  bow-shaped  bone,  known  as  the  navicular, 
which  is  frequently  the  seat  of  disease. 


352 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  bones  are  held  together  by  ligaments.  Tendons  are 
similar  in  character  to  ligaments,  but  differ  in  that  they  join 
muscle  to  bone. 

The  scapula,  humerus,  and  radius  and  ulna  are  enclosed 
in  heavy  muscles  which  move  them.  There  are  no  muscles 
about  the  knee  and  the  parts  below.  Instead,  long  tendons 
pass  down  from  the  muscles  above,  thus  connecting  the  power 
with  the  levers  of  the  lower  part  of  the  limb.  Hence  there  are 
only  bones  and  tendons  below  the  forearm,  together  with  some 
very  important  ligaments  which  hold  the  bones  in  proper  re- 
lation to  one  another.  These  ligaments  are  very  strong  elastic 
cords.  The  lower  limb  moves  when  the  muscles  exert  a  pull 


Fig.  110.     Fore  Leg  from  Knee  to  Ground. 

Showing  the  bones,  ligaments,  and  tendons.  1,  Suspensory  ligament; 
2,  inferior  sesamoid  ligaments;  3,  branch  of  suspensory  ligament;  4,  flexor 
tendon  of  foot;  5,  flexor  tendon  of  pastern;  6,  extensor  tendon;  7,  splint  bone; 
8,  cannon  bone;  9,  sesamoid  bones;  10,  large  pastern  bone;  11,  small  pastern 
bone;  12,  coffin  bone;  13,  navicular  bone. 

on  their  tendons,  which  are  likewise  strong  and  elastic.  The 
tendons  and  ligaments  of  the  fore  limb  are  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying drawing.  The  long  ligament  from  fetlock  to  knee 
is  the  suspensory  ligament.  It  supports  the  fetlock. 

Anatomy  of  the  Hind  Limb. 

The  hind  limb  consists  of  the  femur  (or  thigh  bone)  which 
is  the  largest  in  the  body  and  articulates  below  with  the  tibia 
and  also  with  the  patella  (or  knee  cap).  The  hock  is  composed 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


353 


of  six  bones  which  may  be  divided  into  two  sets,  each  having  a 
purpose  of  its  own.  One  group  of  four  small  bones  (tarsals), 
arranged  in  two  rows  and  resting  on  the  head  of  the  cannon, 
are  united  together  and  to  adjacent  bones  by  short,  powerfu 
ligaments,  and  so  close  is  the  union  that  the  movement  of  one 
bone  upon  another  is  reduced  to  a  simple  gliding  action  of  very 
limited  degree.  Though  slight,  this  movement  is  of  much  im- 
portance in  breaking  the  jar  communicated  to  this  joint  when 
the  horse  is  in  action.  Above  the  small  tarsal  bones  are  two 
larger  bones,  the  astragalus  and  calcaneus,  as  shown  in  Fig.  112. 


Fig.    111.     Bones,    Tendons,    and    Ligaments 
of   the    Fore    Leg. 

1,  Splint  bone;  2,  cannon  bone;  3,  sus- 
pensory ligament;  4,  flexor  tendon  of  foot; 
5,  flexor  tendon  of  pastern. 


Foot 


To  the  calcaneus  is  attached  the  strong  tendon  known  as 
the  tendon  of  Achilles.  By  means  of  it  the  muscles  above 
exert  a  powerful  pull  upon  the  hock  joint,  producing  extension 
of  the  joint.  This  is  the  principal  means  of  the  horse's  pro- 
pulsion. The  knob-like  end  of  the  calcaneus  (to  which  the 
tendon  attaches)  forms  the  point  of  the  hock.  In  some  in- 
stances the  pull  upon  the  hock  has  been  great  enough  to  pro- 
duce a  fracture  of  this  bone. 

Sometimes  a  diseased  condition  is  brought  about  by  the 
ossification  into  one  mass  of  some  or  all  of  the  bones  of  the  hock. 
This  is  called  a  bone  spavin  and  is  a  serious  unsoundness  because 
it  destroys  the  important  gliding  action  of  the  tarsals,  stiffens 
the  joint,  and  often  causes  lameness. 


354 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  parts  below  the  hock  are  similar  in  structure  to  those 
below  the  knee. 

The  skeletons  of  man  and  horse  compared  show  striking 
similarity,  and  at  some  points  rather  marked  variation  and 
difference  in  proportionment  of  parts.  There  are  seven  or 


Fig.     112.     Bones     of    the     Hock. 

A,  Tibia;  B,  calcaneus;  C,  as- 
tragalus; D,  tarsals;  E,  cannon  bone; 
F,  splint  bone. 


eight  bones  in  the  knee  of  the  horse.  The  horse's  knee  corre- 
sponds to  man's  wrist.  The  bones  below  the  horse's  knee  cor- 
respond to  those  beyond  man's  wrist.  Following  is  a  com- 
parison of  the  bones  and  parts  of  the  fore  and  hind  limbs  of 
the  horse  with  the  arm  and  leg  of  man: 


Fore  Limb  of  Horse 


Parts 

Bones 

Shoulder 

Scapula 

Arm 

Humerus 

Forearm 

Radius  and  ulna 

Knee 

7  or  8  carpals 

Cannon 

3  metacarpals 

Pastern  and  foot 

1st,  2nd,  and  3rd 

phalanges 

Hoof 

Hind  Limb 

of  Horse 

Parts 

Bones 

Croup 

Ilium,  ischium, 

and  pubis 

Thigh 

Femur 

Stifle' 

Patella 

Gaskin 

Tibia  and  fibula 

Hock 

6  tarsals 

Gannon 

3  metatarsals 

Pastern  and  foot 

1st,  2nd,  and  3rd 

phalanges 

Arm  of  Man 


Parts 
Shoulder 
Arm 
Forearm 
Wrist 
Palm 

Fingers 
Finger  nails 


Bones 

Scapula  and  clavicle 
Humerus 
Radius  and  ulna 
7  carpals 
5  metacarpals 
f  Thumb — 2  bon<s 
•{  Other  fingers — 3 
bones 


Leg  of  Man 


Parts 
Pelvis 


Hoof 


Thigh 

Knee 

Calf 

Ankle 

Instep 

Toes 
Toe  nails 


Bones 
Ilium,  ischium, 

and  pubis 
Femur 
Patella 

Tibia  and  fibula 
8  tarsals 
5  metatarsals 
Great  toe — 2  bones 
Other  toes — 3  bones 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


355 


The  following  drawing  makes  clear  the  comparison   be- 
tween the  hind  limb  of  the  horse  and  the  foot  of  man. 


Fig.  113.     Man  and  Horse  Compared. 

Bones  of  the  human  foot  and  hind  leg  of  horse  compared.  A,  Femur; 
B,  astragalus;  C,  calcaneus;  D  and  E,  small  tarsals;  F  and  G,  metatarsals; 
1, 2,  and  3,  first,  second,  and  third  phalanges. 

Anatomy  of  the  Foot. 

The  foot  is  not  a  mere  block  of  horn,  but  is  a  composite 
structure  made  up  of  particular  parts,  each  with  a  certain  work 
to  perform.  There  is  an  old  saying,  very  full  of  truth,  "No 
foot,  no  horse."  A  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  foot  is 
very  essential  in  learning  to  judge  horses. 


Fig.  114.     Exterior  of  the  Hoof. 

Showing  division  into  toe,  laterals,  and  quarters. 

The  exterior  of  the  foot  may  be  divided  into  five  parts, 
each  including  one-fifth  of  the  circumference.  These  are  the 
toe,  laterals,  and  quarters. 

From  the  interior  outward,  the  parts  of  the  foot  are  the 
coffin  bone,  lower  end  of  the  small  pastern  bone,  navicular  bone, 
extensor  tendon,  flexor  tendon,  lateral  cartilages,  plantar  cush- 
ion, pododerm  or  foot-skin,  and  the  hoof.  The  foot  also  has  its 
blood  vessels  and  nerves. 


356        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Bones. — The  bones  of  .the  foot  and  pastern  are  four  in 
number,  three  of  which — the  long  pastern,  short  pastern,  and 
coffin  bone — placed  end  to  end  form  a  continuous  straight  col- 
umn passing  downward  and  forward  from  the  fetlock  joint  to 
the  ground.  A  small  accessory  bone,  the  navicular  bone,  lies 
crosswise  in  the  foot  behind  the  coffin  joint,  enlarging  the  joint 
surface.  The  short  pastern  projects  about  1J4  inches  above 
the  hoof  and  extends  about  an  equal  distance  into  it. 

Tendons  and  ligaments. — The  extensor  tendon  of  the  toe 
passes  down  the  front  of  the  pastern  and  attaches  to  the  top  and 
front  of  the  coffin  bone.  The  outer  branch  of  the  suspensory 
ligament  attaches  to  the  tendon  a  short  distance  above  this 
point.  The  flexor  tendon  of  the  foot  passes  down  between  the 


— 10 


/3 


12 
Fig.  115.     Diagram  Showing  Structure  of  Foot. 

1,  Coffin  bone;  2,  small  pastern  bone;  3,  large  pastern  bone;  4,  navicular 
bone;  5,  lateral  cartilage;  6,  extensor  tendon;  7,  flexor  tendon  of  foot;  8,  flexor 
tendon  of  pastern;  9,  branches  of  suspensory  ligament;  10,  wall;  11,  sole; 
12,  frog;  13,  indicates  location  of  plantar  cushion  between  the  lateral  cartilages; 
14,  perioplic  ring;  15,  coronary  cushion. 

heels,  glides  over  the  under  surface  of  the  navicular  bone,  and 
attaches  to  the  under  surface  of  the  coffin  bone.  The  bones  of 
the  foot  are  held  together  by  powerful  short  ligaments. 

Lateral  cartilages  and  plantar  cushion. — The  elastic  tis- 
sues of  the  foot  include  the  lateral  cartilages  and  the  plantar 
cushion.  The  lateral  cartilages  are  two  plates  of  gristle,  one  on 
either  side  of  the  foot,  extending  from  the  wings  of  the  coffin 
Fbne  backward  to  the  heels  and  upward  to  a  distance  of  an  inch 
or  more  above  the  edge  of  the  hair,  where  they  may  be  felt  by 
the  fingers.  When  sound,  these  plates  are  elastic  and  yield 
readily  to  moderate  finger  pressure,  but  from  various  causes 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        357 

they  may  undergo  ossification,  in  which  condition  they  are  hard 
and  unyielding  and  are  called  sidebones.  The  plantar  cushion 
is  a  wedge-shaped  mass  of  tough,  elastic,  fibro-fatty  tissue  fill- 
ing all  the  space  between  the  lateral  cartilages,  forming  the 
fleshy  heels,  and  serving  as  a  buffer  to  disperse  shocks.  It 
extends  forward  underneath  the  navicular  bone  and  flexor  ten- 
don, and  protects  these  structures  from  injurious  pressure  from 
below. 

Pododerm  (or  foot-skin). — The  pododerm  or  horn-produc- 
ing membrane  is  merely  a  continuation  of  the  derm,  or  true 
skin.  It  covers  the  foot  inside  the  hoof,  just  as  a  sock  covers 
the  human  foot  inside  the  shoe.  It  differs  from  the  ordinary 
external  or  "hair"  skin  in  having  no  sweat  or  oil  glands,  but, 
like  it,  is  richly  supplied  with  blood  vessels  and  sensitive  nerves. 
The  functions  of  the  pododerm  are  to  produce  the  hoof  and 
unite  it  firmly  to  the  foot. 

The  hoof  and  how  it  grows. — The  horny  shell,  called  the 
hoof,  which  covers  and  protects  the  foot,  is  made  up  of  three 
parts,  (1)  the  wall  and  bars,  (2)  the  sole,  and  (3)  the  frog. 

Each  part  of  the  hoof  is  grown  by  some  particular  part  or 
parts  of  the  pododerm.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the 
horn  of  the  hoof  is  made  up  of  tubules  or  shafts  of  horn  which 
grow  from  papillae  the  same  as  does  hair.  These  tubules  are 
cemented  together  by  non-tubular  matter  corresponding  to 
dandruff  exfoliated  by  the  skin.  In  fact,  so  pronounced  is  the 
similarity  in  growth  of  horn  and  hair  that  coarse  hair,  especially 
on  the  legs  and  coronet,  is  associated  with  horn  of  coarse  tex- 
ture. Therefore  the  more  coarse  and  brittle  the  hair  about 
the  coronet,  the  more  porous,  brittle,  and  weak  will  be  the  forma- 
tion of  the  horny  hoof. 

The  wall  horn  consists  of  three  layers  known  as  (1)  the 
outer  or  perioplic  layer,  (2)  the  middle  or  coronary  layer,  and 
(3)  the  inner  or  laminous  layer.  The  perioplic  layer  is  very 
thin.  It  is  varnish -like  in  appearance  and  forms  the  surface 
or  crust  of  the  wall.  Its  function  is  to  preserve  the  moisture 
of  the  foot  and  to  absorb  moisture.  A  horse  working  in  sand 
or  dust  usually  has  this  outer  layer  worn  away.  The  coronary 
layer  forms  the  real  basis  of  the  wall.  At  the  heels  it  is  deflected 
forward  to  form  the  bars  of  the  hoof.  The  angle  between  the 
wall  and  bar  is  thickened  and  is  called  the  buttress.  The  func- 
tion of  the  bars  is  to  react  against  contraction  of  the  heels. 
The  inner  or  laminous  layer  of  the  wall  horn  is  not  tubular.  It 


358         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

is  called  laminous  because  it  has  the  appearance  of  the  leaves 
of  a  book.  There  are  500  to  600  of  these  laminae  which  extend 
from  the  top  of  the  hoof  to  the  sole.  It  is  less  thick  than  the 
coronary  layer,  but,  like  it,  is  deflected  forward  at  the  heels 
to  help  form  the  bars. 

Growth  of  the  wall. — At  the  lower  end  of  the  pastern,  run- 
ning along  the  edge  of  the  hair  from  one  heel  around  the  toe 
to  the  other  heel,  is  a  narrow  ridge  of  pododerm,  T^  to  K  of 
an  inch  wide,  called  the  perioplic  ring.  It  consists  of  papillae, 
which  are  microscopic  nobs  or  nodules,  and  from  each  papilla 
a  shaft  of  horn  grows  downward,  forming  the  periople  of  the 
wall.  Like  the  periople,  the  coronary  layer  grows  downward 
from  a  band  of  pododerm  at  the  top  of  the  hoof.  This  band  is 


Fig.   116.     The  Parts  of  the  Hoof. 

1,  Wall;  2,  sole;  3,  branch  of  the 
sole;  4,  bar;  5,  buttress;  6,  frog;  7, 
cleft  of  the  frog;  8,  bulbs  of  the  heels. 


called  the  coronary  cushion,  and  it  lies  just  below  and  parallel 
to  the  perioplic  ring.  At  the  heels  it  is  deflected  forward  where 
it  produces  the  horn  of  the  bars.  The  laminous  horn  is  pro- 
duced by  that  part  of  the  pododerm  known  as  the  fleshy  laminae; 
these  laminae  extend  up  and  down  between  the  coronary  cushion 
and  the  sole.  The  fleshy  laminae  of  the  pododerm  and  the 
laminous  layer  of  the  wall  horn  dovetail  together,  thus  holding 
the  hoof  securely  to  the  foot. 

The  sole  horn  is  circular  in  shape  except  that  it  is  notched 
at  the  rear  where  it  receives  the  bars  and  horny  frog.  It  is 
naturally  concave  below  and  is  bounded  at  its  edge  by  the  wall 
and  bars.  It  is  very  brittle,  non-elastic,  and  easily  penetrated. 
The  sole  horn  is  produced  by  the  fleshy  sole,  which  is  that  por- 
tion of  the  pododerm  covering  the  entire  under  surface  of  the 
foot  excepting  the  fleshy  frog  and  bars. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        359 

The  horny  frog  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  sole  horn 
except  at  its  apex.  It  is  tough,  elastic,  and  rather  soft  horn. 
The  upper  part  of  the  horny  frog  has  an  elevation  or  ridge  and 
on  the  bottom  there  is  a  corresponding  notch  or  groove.  The 
horny  frog  grows  from  the  fleshy  frog,  which  is  that  part  of 
the  pododerm  just  above  the  horny  frog. 

The  preceding  discussion  of  the  parts  of  the  hoof  and  podo- 
derm may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

[  Perioplic  layer,  produced  by  perioplic  ring. 

1.  Wall  4  Coronary  layer,  produced  by  coronary  cushion. 

[  Laminous  layer,  produced  by  fleshy  laminae. 

2.  Sole,  produced  by  fleshy  sole. 

3.  Frog,  produced  by  fleshy  frog. 

All  parts  of  the  hoof  grow  downward  and  forward  with 
equal  rapidity,  the  rate  of  growth  being  largely  dependent  upon 
the  amount  of  blood  supplied  to  the  pododerm.  Abundant  and 
regular  exercise,  good  grooming,  moistness  and  suppleness  of 
the  hoof,  going  barefoot,  plenty  of  good  food,  and  at  proper 
intervals  removing  the  over-growth  of  the  hoof  and  regulating 
the  bearing  surface — all  these,  by  increasing  the  volume  and 
improving  the  quality  of  blood  flowing  into  the  pododerm,  favor 
the  rapid  growth  of  horn  of  good  quality.  Lack  of  exercise, 
dryness  of  the  horn,  and  excessive  length  of  the  hoof  hinder 
growth.  The  average  rate  of  growth  of  the  hoof  is  about  one- 
third  of  an  inch  a  month.  Irregular  growth  often  occurs.  This 
is  almost  always  due  to  an  improper  distribution  of  the  body 
weight  over  the  hoof,— that  is,  an  unbalanced  foot.  One  auth- 
ority on  this  subject  says: — "If  breeders  were  more  generally 
cognizant  of  the  power  of  overgrown  and  unbalanced  hoofs 
to  divert  the  lower  bones  of  young  legs  from  their  proper  direc- 
tion, we  might  hope  to  see  fewer  knock-kneed,  splay-footed, 
pigeon-toed,  cow-hocked,  interfering,  and  paddling  horses/' 

Characteristics  of  a  healthy  foot. — A  healthy  foot  is  equally 
warm  at  all  parts,  and  is  not  tender  under  pressure  with  the 
hands.  The  coronet  is  soft  and  elastic  at  all  points  and  does 
not  project  beyond  the  surface  of  the  wall.  The  wall  is  straight 
from  coronet  to  ground,  so  that  a  straight-edge  laid  against 
the  wall  from  coronet  to  ground  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the 
horn  tubules  will  touch  at  every  point.  The  wall  should  be 
covered  with  the  outer  varnish-like  layer  of  horn  called  the 
periople,  and  should  show  no  cracks  or  clefts.  Every  hoof  shows 
"ring  formation,"  but  the  rings  should  not  be  strongly  marked 


360         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

and  should  always  run  parallel  to  the  coronet.  Strongly  marked 
rings  are  evidence  of  a  weak  hoof,  but  when  limited  to  a  part  of 
the  wall  are  evidence  of  previous  local  inflammation.  The 
bulbs  of  the  heels  should  be  full,  rounded,  and  of  equal  height. 
The  sole  should  be  well  hollowed  out,  the  frog  well  developed, 
the  cleft  of  the  frog  broad  and  shallow,  the  spaces  between  the 
bars  and  the  frog  wide  and  shallow,  the  bars  straight  from  buttress 
toward  the  point  of  the  frog,  and  the  buttresses  themselves  so 
far  apart  as  not  to  press  against  the  frog.  A  hoof  cannot  be 
considered  healthy  if  it  presents  reddish,  discolored  horn,  cracks 
in  the  wall,  bars,  or  frog,  thrush  of  the  frog,  contraction  or  dis- 
placement of  the  heels.  The  lateral  cartilages  should  yield 
readily  to  finger  pressure.  Some  horsemen  object  to  a  white 
hoof,  believing  it  to  be  less  durable,  but  a  white  hoof  is  as  good 
as  a  dark-colored  one.  Horn  of  good  quality  is  fine  grained 
and  tough,  while  poor  horn  is  coarse  grained  and  either  too 
mellow  and  friable  or  hard  and  brittle. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
SOME  IMPORTANT  FACTS  CONCERNING  THE  HORSE. 

Base  of  support. — The  horse's  legs  are  his  base  of  support, 
just  as  the  table  legs  support  the  table.  The  longer  the  legs, 
the  less  stable  the  base  of  support.  The  smaller  the  base  of 
support,  the  less  stable  it  will  be.  The  less  stable  the  base  of 
support,  the  greater  the  speed  of  the  horse;  while  the  greater 
the  stability,  the  greater  the  power  for  draft.  The  base  of 


Fig.  117.     Attachment  of  Fore  Leg  to  Body. 

Cross-section  through  chest,  showing  the  bones  of  the  fore  leg  and  the 
muscular  attachment  of  leg  to  body. 

support  of  any  object  will  be  most  stable  when  it  comes  directly 
beneath  the  center  of  weight.  In  horses  the  center  of  weight 
is  far  forward,  lying  immediately  behind  the  shoulders.  Thus 
the  fore  legs  support  much  more  of  the  weight  of  the  horse  than 
do  the  hind  legs,  in  fact  it  is  the  function  of  the  forequarters  to 
support,  and  of  the  hindquarters  to  propel.  This  is  the  more 
clearly  shown  when  we  examine  the  anatomy  of  the  horse,  for 
we  find  that  the  hind  legs  are  attached  to  the  trunk  by  the  strong 
ball-and-socket  joint,  while  the  fore  legs  are  not  directly  attached 

361 


362        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

to  the  trunk  but  are  connected  by  intervening  muscles  which 
form  a  sort  of  sling  which  suspends  the  body  between  the  two 
fore  legs.  The  muscle  attaching  the  fore  limb  to  the  trunk  is 
called  the  serratus  magnus.  It  is  an  enormous  triangular  muscle 
which  originates  on  the  upper  part  of  the  internal  surface  of  the 
shoulder  blade  and  spreads  out  like  a  fan  on  the  sides  of  the 
chest  and  neck  and  ends  on  the  cervical  vertebrae  and  first  eight 
or  nine  ribs.  The  drawing  presented  herewith  shows  a  front 
view  of  the  muscular  attachment  of  the  scapula  to  the  neck 
and  trunk. 

When  the  horse  is  standing,  the  base  of  support  is  rep- 
resented by  a  rectangle  the  corners  of  which  are  the  horse's 
feet.  In  the  walk,  the  base  of  support  is  triangular,  for  then 
only  three  feet  touch  the  ground.  In  the  trot  or  pace,  only 
two  feet  touch  the  ground,  and  the  base  of  support  will  be  rep- 
resented by  a  line.  In  the  run  or  gallop,  the  base  of  support 
is  a  point.  Thus  as  speed  increases  there  is  a  corresponding 
decrease  in  stability. 

The  horse  in  motion. — We  have  seen  that  the  horse  iu 
rather  unstable  because  the  center  of  weight  lies  almost  over 
the  fore  legs.  Hence  the  fore  legs  answer  the  purpose  simply 
of  a  support  to  the  horse's  weight  when  he  is  in  motion.  If  we 
could  replace  the  fore  legs  with  a  wheel,  we  would  have  an  equally 
efficient  motor. 

When  a  man  walks,  he  leans  forward  in  order  to  throw 
the  center  of  his  weight  ahead  of  his  base  of  support.  This 
causes  him  to  begin  to  fall  forward,  and  indeed  he  would  fall 
if  he  did  not  advance  his  foot  and  so  bring  his  base  of  support 
once  more  under,  or  nearly  under,  the  center  of  weight.  Walk- 
ing is  simply  a  succession  of  interrupted  falls.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  horse.  In  walking  he  pushes  backward  against  the 
ground  with  his  hind  feet  and  causes  his  center  of  weight  to 
tip  forward.  The  result  is  that  he  begins  to  fall,  and  if  he  did 
not  advance  a  fore  foot  he  would  land  on  his  head.  By  step- 
ping forward  he  again  assumes  his  equilibrium  and  immediately 
tips  his  weight  forward  again  by  propelling  with  his  hind  legs. 
Walking  is  simply  the  repetition  of  this  performance  over  and 
over  again. 

In  the  trot  and  the  gallop  or  run,  there  is  the  same  backward 
thrust  with  the  hind  feet  and  the  same  recovery  with  the  fore  feet, 
but  the  thrust  is  much  greater,  the  stride  is  longer,  and  the 
shock  and  effort  in  the  recovery  are  increased  in  proportion. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        363 

In  1897,  Tod  Sloan,  a  famous  American  jockey,  went  to 
England  to  ride.  He  practiced  the  same  seat  which  all  Amer- 
ican jockeys  use  and  with  which  all  Americans  are  familiar. 
Its  peculiar  feature  is  that  the  jockey  sits  as  far  forward  on  the 
horse  as  possible.  When  Sloan  appeared  on  English  race  courses 
he  was  severely  ridiculed,  for  at  that  time  English  jockeys  were 
not  familiar  with  our  methods  and  it  was  thought  Sloan  was 
trying  to  attract  attention  to  himself  by  adopting  a  ridiculous 
position  on  his  horse.  Race-going  people  laughed  at  him  until 
it  was  noticed  that  he  was  enjoying  unusual  success  at  winning 
races.  Sloan  rode  twenty  winners  during  his  first  season  in 
England,  forty-three  the  next,  and  in  1899  he  was  first  past 
the  post  with  no  fewer  than  one  hundred  and  eight  horses.  In 
the  same  year,  two  other  Americans,  the  brothers  Lester  and 
Johnny  Reiff,  also  had  eighty-two  victories  to  their  credit.  The 
methods  of  these  American  jockeys  were  soon  copied  by  most 
of  the  English  riders,  but  the  Americans  continued  to  pile  up 
a  remarkable  record  of  successes,  culminating  in  three  successive 
Derby  triumphs — Lester  ReifFs  in  1901,  Martin's  in  1902,  and 
Maher's  in  1903.  During  eight  years  ending  in  1905,  the  eight 
or  nine  American  jockeys  who  appeared  in  England  for  one  or 
more  seasons  divided  among  them,  in  retainers,  winning  fees, 
and  etceteras,  fully  a  million  dollars.  Their  work  made  a  new 
chapter  in  English  turf  history. 

No  sooner  had  Sloan  shown  ability  to  win  consistently 
than  people  began  trying  to  find  out  the  secret  of  his  success. 
They  could  see  that  he  carried  himself  as  far  forward  on  his 
horse  as  possible,  and  so  these  questions  arose: — Does  a  man 
seated  near  the  neck  of  a  horse  enable  the  animal  to  travel  faster 
than  one  seated  near  the  tail?  If  so,  why?  As  for  the  first 
question,  Sloan  gave  it  a  practical  answer  by  his  consistent 
winnings.  The  second  question  was  also  finally  answered. 

A  horse  to  move  forward  at  all  must  thrust  at  the  earth, 
and  the  chief  force  of  this  thrust  comes  from  his  hind  legs.  If 
the  center  of  weight  of  horse  and  rider  is  just  over,  or  close  to 
the  thrusting  power,  naturally  it  diminishes  the  efficiency  or 
speed,  for  instead  of  thrusting  the  horse  forward,  a  large  portion 
of  the  mascular  energy  is  wasted  in  lifting  the  weight  of  the 
jockey  at  every  stride.  The  drawing  below  and  the  words 
which  follow  will  make  this  clear. 

The  farther  forward  the  center  of  weight  is,  the  longer  is 
the  line  from  hind  foot  to  center  of  weight,  called  the  line  of 


364         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

thrust,  and  the  more  nearly  will  this  line  approach  the  horizontal. 
As  a  horse  has  to  raise  himself  vertically  with  each  bound,  it 
is  naturally  a  matter  of  very  great  importance  whether  he  has 
to  lift  a  dead  weight  or  a  weight  which  throws  forward.  A 
jockey  on  the  horse's  neck  adds  to  the  forward  weight,  and  this 
moves  the  center  of  weight  still  further  forward  and  places  still 
more  weight  on  the  fore  legs  and  equally  less  on  the  hind  legs. 
The  longer  the  angle  of  thrust,  the  easier  and  therefore  the 
faster  the  horse  will  go,  for  his  power  will  then  be  utilized  almost 
exclusively  in  a  horizontal  thrust  resulting  in  speed,  and  little 
of  his  energy  will  be  consumed  in  simply  raising  weight  to  let 
it  fall  again.  It  is  the  same  as  a  man  pushing  a  wheelbarrow; 


c 


Fig.  118.     The  Horse  in  Motion. 

A,  Center  of  weight;  AB,  line  of  thrust;  ABC,  angle  of  thrust;  Y,  center 
of  weight  when  rider  is  over  neck  of  horse;  X,  center  of  weight  when  rider 
sits  near  the  tail. 

if  the  load  is  near  the  handles  it  must  be  raised  at  each  step, 
while  if  the  load  is  over  or  near  the  wheel  the  man  does  not 
expend  so  much  energy  in  a  lift  at  each  step,  but  can  use  all 
his  force  at  pushing  straight  ahead. 

Where  the  wear  comes. — From  what  has  been  said  con- 
cerning the  function  of  the  fore  legs  in  supporting  most  of  the 
horse's  weight,  we  can  readily  understand  that  the  horse  is 
more  apt  to  tire,  exhaust,  and  ruin  his  fore  legs  than  his  hind 
ones.  It  is  common  to  see  men  driving  their  horses  at  speed 
when  going  down  hill,  thinking  that  the  horse  is  doing  little 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         365 

or  nothing  because  the  vehicle  follows  without  having  to  be 
pulled.  This  is  a  decided  error,  for  in  going  down  hill  still 
more  weight  is  thrown  on  the  fore  legs,  and  if  the  animal  is  made 
to  descend  at  speed  he  hammers  his  fore  legs  severely,  and  often 
stumbles  and  falls.  Because  of  the  hammering  to  which  the 
fore  legs  and  feet  of  the  horse  are  subjected,  and  because  of  the 
great  strain  coming  upon  the  hock  joint  due  to  its  prominent 
part  in  propulsion,  the  feet  and  legs  constitute  a  most  vital  part 
in  every  type  of  horse,  and  special  attention  should  be  given  to 
front  feet,  front  pasterns,  the  hocks,  and  the  set  or  position 
of  the  hind  legs  when  judging. 

Hoof  mechanism. — When  the  horse  places  his  foot  on  the 
ground,  expansion  occurs,  especially  at  the  heels.  When  the 
foot  is  raised  there  is  contraction.  The  plantar  cushion,  being 
soft,  transmits  force  or  motion  in  all  directions  more  or  less 
equally  (as  a  liquid).  It  cannot  move  downward  to  any  great 
degree,  hence  it  spreads  or  diffuses  laterally,  and  so  the  heels 
expand.  When  the  horse  places  his  foot  on  the  ground  there 
occurs: — (1)  Contraction  of  the  hoof  at  the  toe- wall  coronet; 
(2)  sinking  of  the  sole,  especially  at  its  branches;  (3)  expansion 
of  the  heels;  (4)  sinking  of  the  bulbs  of  the  heels.  These  four 
movements  constitute  what  is  known  as  the  "hoof  mechanism." 
The  health  of  the  foot  is  dependent  on  the  normal  and  free  hoof 
mechanism,  and  it  should  not  be  hindered  by  improper  shoeing 
or  other  causes.  Hoof  mechanism  breaks  concussion  and  assists 
circulation.  Concussion  is  shock  and  counter-shock.  These 
shocks  must  be  diffused,  and  this  is  cared  for  laterally  in  the 
foot  by  its  changes  in  form. 

Absorption  of  concussion. — Every  step  at  the  walk  or  trot 
means  a  big  concussion  between  the  ground  and  the  front  foot 
of  the  horse.  Were  it  not  for  certain  arrangements  for  the 
absorption  of  this  shock  or  jar,  the  horse  would  soon  be  made 
worthless.  Hoof  mechanism  is,  as  we  have  seen,  one  of  the 
means  of  scattering  the  shock,  acting  in  much  the  same  way 
as  a  pneumatic  tire  on  a  vehicle.  Another  safe-guard  is  found 
in  a  sloping  pastern,  which  acts  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
the  spring  under  a  carriage.  Then  there  is  the  angle  between 
humerus  and  forearm,  and  also  between  scapula  and  humerus, 
which  also  act  as  springs.  A  sloping  shoulder  is  useful  in  the 
same  way. 

If  you  have  ever  ridden  in  a  farm  wagon  over  a  rough  road, 
standing  on  your  heels,  you  can  appreciate  the  tremendous  wear 


366 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


which  comes  on  the  legs  of  a  horse  with  poor  feet,  straight  pas- 
terns, and  straight  shoulders.  Then  if  you  shifted  your  weight 
to  your  toes  and  bent  your  knees  slightly,  you  found  that  your 
teeth  stopped  chattering  and  your  hat  remained  on  your  head. 


Fig.  119.     Front  View  of  Fore  Legs. 

A  vertical  line  downward  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  fall  upon 
the  center  of  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern,  and  foot.  A,  Ideal  position;  B,  toes 
out;  C,  bow  legged;  D,  narrow  chested  and  toes  out;  E,  stands  close;  F,  knock 
kneed;  G,  pigeon  toed. 

In  other  words,  your  change  in  position  changed  the  column  of 
bones  supporting  your  weight  from  a  straight,  vertical  column 
to  a  broken  one  with  angles  which  acted  as  springs  and  absorbed 
the  jar.  It  is  just  so  with  a  horse  having  good  feet  and  nicely 
sloping  shoulders  and  pasterns. 


\ 


-L 

£ 

\ 


Fig.  120.     Side  View  of  Fore  Legs. 

A  vertical  line  downward  from  the  center  of  the  elbow  joint  should  fall 
upon  the  center  of  the  knee  and  fetlock  joints  and  meet  the  ground  back  of 
the  heel.  A,  Ideal  position;  B,  camped  under;  C,  camped  out;  D,  knee  sprung; 
E,  calf  kneed. 

Defective  conformations  of  the  legs  and  effects  on  action.— 

A  line  around  the  hoof  on  the  ground  gives  the  area  of  the  base 
of  support  of  that  leg.  If  the  center  of  the  base  of  support  of 
the  leg  is  not  directly  under  the  center  of  the  weight  falling  on 
that  leg,  the  side  of  the  foot  nearest  the  point  directly  under 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


367 


the  center  of  weight  will  be  compelled  to  do  more  than  its  share 
of  the  work.  Therefore  the  leg  of  the  horse  should  be  so  set 
that  the  center  of  the  base  of  support  comes  directly  under  the 
center  of  the  weight  it  bears.  The  fore  legs  should  be  so  placed 


Fig.  121.     Side  View  of  Hind  Legs. 

A  vertical  line  downward  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  touch  the 
rear  edge  of  the  cannon  from  hock  to  fetlock  and  meet  the  ground  some  little 
distance  behind  the  heel.  A,  Ideal  position;  B,  stands  under;  C,  camped  out; 
D,  hind  leg  too  straight. 

under  the  body  that,  when  viewed  from  in  front,  a  perpendicular 
line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  will  divide  the  leg 
and  foot  into  lateral  halves.  When  viewed  from  the  side,  a 
perpendicular  line  dropped  from  the  middle  of  the  forearm 
where  it  joins  the  body  should  divide  the  leg  from  body  to  fet- 


Fig.  122.     Rear  View  of  Hind  Legs. 

A  vertical  line  downward  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon 
the  center  of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern,  and  foot.  A,  Ideal  position;  B, 
stands  wide;  C,  bow  legged;  D,  stands  close;  E,  cow  hocked. 

lock  into  lateral  halves  and  strike  the  ground  just  back  of  the 
heel. 

When  the  horse  assumes  his  natural  position,  the  hind 
legs  should  be  so  placed  that,  when  viewed  from  the  rear,  a  per- 
pendicular line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  will  divide 


368 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  leg  and  foot  into  lateral  halves;  and  when  viewed  from 
the  side,  this  line  should  touch  the  rear  edge  of  the  cannon  from 
hock  point  to  fetlock  and  meet  the  ground  some  little  distance 
back  of  the  heel. 

The  direction  and  slope  of  the  axis  of  pastern  and  foot 
are  very  important.  When  the  leg  is  viewed  from  the  front 
or  side,  the  axis  of  the  pastern  and  the  axis  of  the  foot  should 
be  identical.  As  viewed  from  the  front,  the  toe  should  point 
directly  forward.  This  insures  an  even  distribution  of  weight 
to  both  sides  of  the  foot  and  also  trueness  of  action.  As  viewed 
from  the  side,  the  axis  of  the  front  pastern  and  foot  should 
meet  the  ground  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees.  This  angle 
affords  the  best  combination  of  strength  and  springiness. 


Ideal 


Ideal 


Fig.  123.     Defects  in  Fore  Legs  and  Their  Effect  on  Action. 

When  moving  toward  or  from  you,  the  feet  of  the  horse 
should  appear  to  have  only  one  motion,  which  should  be  verti- 
cally up  and  down.  This  is  very  essential  in  every  type  of 
horse.  Height  of  action  in  any  type  should  be  great  enough 
to  clear  the  ground  by  a  reasonable  distance,  so  as  to  prevent 
stumbling  and  insure  length  of  stride.  The  carriage  horse  is 
required  to  go  higher  than  this  for  reasons  which  will  be  ex- 
plained in  connection  with  the  description  of  that  type.  The 
essentials  of  good  action  are  (1)  straight  line  action,  (2)  long 
stride,  and  (3)  foot  should  be  picked  up  with  snap.  Defects 
in  conformation  and  placing  of  feet  and  legs  result  in  defects 
in  action.  Only  when  the  legs  are  correctly  proportioned  and 
properly  placed  can  good  action  result.  Correctness  of  action 
depends  also  upon  temperament,  strength  of  muscling,  height 
over  withers  as  compared  with  height  over  hips,  and  general 
symmetry  and  proportionment  of  parts.  The  most  common 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        369 

defects  in  the  shape  and  position  of  the  legs  are  shown  in  the 
accompanying  drawings. 

A  horse  that  is  "base  wide"  or  "toe  wide"  in  front,  swings 
the  leg  inward  when  in  action.  A  "base  narrow"  or  "toe  nar- 
row" conformation  results  in  the  horse  swinging  his  feet  out- 
ward, or  "paddling"  as  it  is  called.  (See  accompanying  draw- 
ings.) Horses  that  naturally  stand  wide  at  the  hocks  will  travel 
the  same  way  (wide),  which  is  very  undesirable.  When  the 
hind  legs  are  bowed  outward,  the  hocks  spread  still  further 
outward  when  the  stress  comes  upon  them  in  action,  and  usually 
the  foot  leaves  the  ground  with  a  twisting  motion  which  wears 
out  shoes  and  is  otherwise  undesirable.  Any  deviation  from 
trueness  in  the  flight  of  the  foot  wastes  energy,  detracts  from 
the  appearance  of  the  horse  in  action,  and  the  horse  may  strike 
himself,  called  interfering,  which  often  causes  blemishes,  lame- 
ness, and  stumbling. 

Viewed  from  the  side,  a  nicely  sloping  foot  and  pastern 
leave  the  ground  easily  and  describe  the  arc  of  a  circle  at  every 
step.  Straight  or  stubby  pasterns  and  feet  result  in  a  short, 
stubby  way  of  going  that  is  stilted  and  non-elastic.  A  too- 
sloping  pastern  and  foot  are  not  nicely  carried,  but  are  brought 
out  straight  to  a  point  in  front  and  then  slapped  upon  the  ground. 
(See  accompanying  drawings.)  Other  defects  of  action  will  be 
discussed  in  connection  with  the  various  types  of  horses. 

Bent  or  sickle  hocks. — This  defect  is  often  difficult  for 
beginners  to  detect.  It  is  often  possible  to  pose  a  horse  so  as 
to  hide  this  fault  unless  one  knows  exactly  how  to  detect  it 
under  all  conditions.  When  a  horse  with  a  sickle  hock  stands 
in  a  natural  position,  the  defect  is  easily  seen.  A  vertical  line 
downward  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  may  then  touch  the 
point  of  the  hock,  but  below  that  point  the  cannon  slopes  for- 
ward instead  of  following  the  vertical  line,  and  the  hind  foot  is 
placed  too  far  forward.  (See  B  in  Fig.  124,  and  note  that 
this  is  not  the  same  defect  as  B  in  Fig.  121.)  Some  horses  are 
very  slightly  sickled  and  some  are  very  crooked  indeed.  Such 
a  conformation  is  decidedly  objectionable  because  bent  hocks 
are  not  as  stout  as  straight  hocks  at  a  hard  pull  or  at  work  of 
any  kind,  and  furthermore  the  crooked  shape  of  the  hock  and  leg 
brings  an  added  strain  on  the  hock  joint.  The  sickle  hock  often 
develops  a  curb,  and  is  also  subject  to  other  unsoundnesses. 

In  showing  horses,  it  is  common  to  stretch  them  out  on  their 
legs  to  a  slight  extent,  so  as  to  raise  the  head  and  neck,  level 


370 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


up  the  croup,  and  increase  the  slope  of  the  front  pasterns.  A 
horse  in  such  a  position  is  more  apt  to  hold  it  than  a  horse  stand- 
ing naturally,  and  for  all  these  reasons  it  is  practiced  by  horse- 
men. It  also  has  the  advantage  of  covering  up  defects  in  the 
set  of  the  legs,  particularly  a  sickle  hock.  If  a  horse  with  sickle 
hocks  is  stretched  or  "camped  out"  a  bit,  his  hind  cannons 
become  vertical,  and  the  novice  is  likely  to  overlook  the  fact 
that  the  line  of  his  cannons,  even  though  it  is  vertical,  points 
back  of  his  buttock,  often  to  a  considerable  degree.  (See  C 
in  accompanying  drawings,  and  note  that  this  is  not  the  same 
as^C  in  Fig.  121.)  It  is  only  by  noting  carefully  the  direction 
of  the  lines  indicated  in  the  accompanying  drawings  that  one 
can  detect  this  fault. 


Fig.  124.     Sickle  Hock. 

A,  Hind  leg  of  a  horse  of  correct  conformation;  B  and  C,  two  positions 
of  the  hind  leg  of  a  horse  with  a  sickle  hock;  B,  in  a  position  easily  exposing 
the  defect;  C,  in  a  position  in  which  the  defect  is  not  so  apparent. 

Determination  of  age  from  the  teeth. — The  age  of  the  horse 
is  easily  determined  up  to  and  including  the  fifth  year  by  an 
examination  of  the  incisor  teeth,  of  which  there  are  three  pairs 
in  the  upper  jaw  and  three  pairs  in  the  lower.  All  of  these 
incisors  are  temporary  or  milk  teeth  up  to  two  years  of  age.  At 
birth  none  of  the  temporary  teeth  have  cut  the  gums,  but  at 
one  year  they  have  all  appeared  and  the  middle  and  intermediate 
pairs  are  in  wear,  but  the  corner  pairs  are  not  fully  in  wear. 
At  two  years,  all  of  the  temporary  teeth  are  in  wear.  At  2% 
to  3  years,  the  middle  pair  above  and  below  are  shed,  and  are 
replaced  by  permanent  incisors.  These  are  broader,  heavier 
teeth,  and  have  a  rather  rough  or  corrugated  surface,  whereas 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        371 

the  surface  of  the  milk  teeth  is  smooth.  At  3%  to  4  years, 
the  intermediate  pair  of  permanent  incisors  appears  in  each 
jaw.  At  4  ^2  to  ^  years,  the  corner  pair  of  milk  teeth  above 
and  below  are  displaced  by  permanents,  and  the  horse  may 
be  said  to  have  reached  maturity. 

After  five  years  the  age  is  not  so  easily  determined,  nor 
are  the  indications  so  accurate.  We  rely  mostly  upon  changes 
in  appearance  shown  by  the  wearing  surfaces  of  the  teeth  to 
tell  us  the  age  beyond  five  years.  The  wearing  surface  of  new 
permanent  teeth  has  a  long,  narrow  cup  or  depression  running 
across  it  transversely.  The  rims  of  these  cups  disappear  through 
wear,  leaving  two  distinct  rings  of  enamel,  one  around  the  margin 
of  the  tooth,  and  the  other  around  the  cup.  With  wear,  the 
cup  becomes  smaller,  more  oval  or  rounding  in  shape,  and  more 
shallow,  until  it  is  finally  worn  almost  completely  away.  Con- 
tinued wear  exposes  the  tip  of  the  pulp  canal  or  cavity  in  the 
center  of  the  tooth,  and  the  exposed  tip  of  this  canal  appears 
between  what  is  left  of  the  cup  and  the  front  of  the  tooth.  The 
exposed  pulp  cavity  is  called  the  dental  star. 

At  six  years,  the  middle  pair  in  the  lower  jaw  are  usually 
worn  level  and  the  wearing  surface  tends  to  become  oval  in  form. 
The  central  ring  of  enamel  is  plainly  evident,  but  is  smaller 
than  at  five  years,  indicating  considerable  wear.  The  lower 
corner  teeth,  which  at  five  years  showed  little  or  no  wear,  now 
usually  show  wear,  the  edge  surrounding  the  cup  being  much 
less  sharp  and  shell-like.  The  canine  teeth,  which  first  ap- 
peared at  four  years  are  now  completely  out.  At  seven  years, 
the  lower  intermediates  are  also  levelled  on  the  wearing  surface 
and  the  ring  of  central  enamel  becomes  wider  from  before  back- 
ward, and  shorter  from  side  to  side.  A  hook  or  swallow  tail 
is  often  present  on  the  upper  corner  teeth  because  they  are 
broader  than  the  lower  corners  and  do  not  wear  down  evenly. 
At  eight  years,  all  the  lower  teeth  are  levelled  and  the  dental 
star  appears  upon  the  center  and  intermediate  pairs,  showing 
between  the  front  border  of  the  tooth  and  the  front  border  of 
the  central  enamel. 

At  nine  years,  the  hook  or  swallow  tail  on  the  upper  corners 
has  often  disappeared.  The  lower  centers  are  round;  their 
central  enamel  has  a  triangular  form;  and  their  dental  star  is 
narrower  and  more  distinct.  The  center  pair  of  the  upper  jaw 
are  usually  leveled.  At  ten  years,  the  changes  previously  men- 
tioned become  more  marked,  and  the  upper  intermediates  are 


372        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

usually  levelled.  At  eleven  years,  the  central  enamel  of  the 
upper  corner  teeth  becomes  elliptical  and  tends  to  disappear. 
The  lower  teeth  now  show  much  wear,  the  central  enamel  forms 
a  small  ring  only,  very  close  to  the  back  border  of  the  tooth, 
while  the  dental  star  becomes  narrower  and  also  approaches 
the  back  border.  At  twelve  years,  all  of  the  lower  teeth  are 
round,  and  sometimes  the  central  enamel  has  disappeared,  in 
which  case  the  wearing  surfaces  show  only  a  small  yellowish 
spot  which  is  the  dental  star.  At  fifteen  years,  the  swallow 
tail,  which  reappeared  at  ten  years,  is  still  in  evidence,  the  teeth 
tend  strongly  toward  a  triangular  shape  on  the  wearing  surface, 
and  other  indications  of  age  become  marked.  At  twenty-one 
years,  the  swallow  tail  is  gone  again,  and  all  indications  of  wear 
are  very  marked.  After  ten  or  eleven  years  and  on  up  to  thirty 
or  more,  only  general  indications  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  age. 
The  horseman  knows  that  the  teeth  change  from  oval  to  three- 
sided  with  age,  and  that  they  project  or  slant  forward  more  and 
more  each  year.  In  very  old  horses  these  features  are  very 
marked. 

In  determining  the  age,  a  regular  procedure  should  be  fol- 
lowed. First  open  the  lips  and  determine  whether  the  teeth 
are  temporary  or  permanent.  Unless  they  are  all  permanent 
it  is  usually  unnecessary  to  open  the  mouth.  If  they  are  all 
permanent,  the  wearing  surfaces  of  the  lower  incisors  should  be 
carefully  examined  first,  and  then  the  wearing  surfaces  of  the 
upper  incisors.  Also  note  the  profile  or  slant  of  the  teeth,  and 
the  presence  or  absence  of  the  hook  or  swallow  tail  on  the  upper 
corner  teeth. 

Mere  description  here  will  not  enable  the  student  to  be- 
come adept  at  determining  age.  Actual  practice  and  the  study 
of  many  mouths  are  necessary  in  order  to  master  this  subject. 

Determination  of  the  height  of  horses. — The  height  of  a 
horse  is  determined  by  measuring  the  vertical  distance  from 
the  highest  part  of  his  withers  to  the  ground.  The  unit  in  which 
the  height  of  horses  is  expressed  is  the  hand.  A  hand  is  four 
inches.  A  horse  measuring  60  inches  high  is  thus  said  to  be 
15  hands  high;  a  horse  measuring  63  inches  is  said  to  be  "fifteen, 
thr.ee/'  meaning  15  hands,  three  inches,  written  15-3;  and  one 
measuring  65  inches  is  16-1  hands  high.  The  dividing  line  in 
height  between  horses  and  ponies  cannot  be  definitely  fixed, 
but  is  about  14  hands.  Ponies  vary  in  height  from  14  hands 
down  to  8  hands  or  even  less,  while  horses  vary  from  14  hands 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        373 

up  to  18  hands  and  over.  With  practice  the  height  of  horses 
may  be  estimated  very  closely  without  the  aid  of  a  measuring 
standard.  A  person  who  knows  the  exact  height  from  the 
ground  to  the  level  of  his  eyes,  and  also  the  exact  height  from 
the  ground  to  his  chin,  can  step  up  to  the  shoulder  of  a  horse, 
locate  the  highest  bony  part  of  the  withers,  and  estimate  the 
height  very  easily. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 
ORIGIN  OF  THE  TYPES  OF  HORSES. 

The  history  of  the  horse  dates  back  to  4000  B.  C.  Sev- 
eral wild  species  existed  in  Europe  and  Asia  from  very  remote 
times,  but  it  was  in  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt  that  the  horse  was 
first  domesticated  and  made  to  serve  man.  He  was  taken 
thence  to  Greece,  Rome,  and  Arabia;  thence  to  more  remote 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  particularly  to  Spain,  France,  and 
England;  and  thence  to  America  and  Australia. 

For  a  long  time  the  horses  used  by  the  early  European 
tribes  and  nations  were  small,  semi-wild  animals,  and  no  effort 
was  made  to  improve  them  by  breeding.  They  were  simply 
native  wild  horses,  captured,  tamed,  and  put  to  use,  and  their 
size  and  strength  was  not  great  enough  to  permit  them  to  be 
ridden.  They  were  used  principally  in  warfare,  harnessed  to 
chariots.  However,  there  were  horses  of  black  color  and  much 
greater  size  and  weight  native  to  the  region  in  Western  Europe 
now  called  Flanders,  and  these  were  taken  south  and  east,  just 
as  the  horses  of  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt  were  taken  north  and 
west.  The  infusion  of  the  blood  of  this  large  Flemish  horse 
increased  the  size  of  European  horses  and  made  them  suitable 
for  riding  and  other  purposes.  Better  feed  and  care  also  con- 
tributed to  this  result. 

The  development  and  progress  of  the  horse  was  parallel 
with  the  development  of  civilization  and  a  prominent  factor 
in  it.  The  horse  was  first  used  for  military  purposes;  next, 
in  ceremonies,  both  religious  and  civil;  third,  in  the  agricul- 
tural and  commercial  pursuits  of  nations;  fourth,  in  connection 
with  the  pastimes  and  sports  of  nations. 

First  saddle  horse. — The  Arabian  horse  was  the  first  breed 
of  live  stock  developed  by  man.  This  horse  is  a  saddle  type 
and  was  developed  by  the  nomadic  tribes  of  the  desert  for  use 
in  warfare.  The  exact  origin  is  unknown,  but  the  great  age 
of  the  breed  is  shown  by  a  legend  which  says  that  it  is  descended 
from  five  mares  in  the  stud  of  King  Solomon.  It  seems  to  have 
descended  directly  from  the  wild  Libyan  horse  native  to  Northern 
Africa — most  excellent  of  all  known  wild  varieties  of  the  horse. 
The  Arabian  has  for  centuries  possessed  such  equisite  quality, 

374 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        375 

refinement,  intelligence,  spirit,  docility,  and  beauty  as  to  make 
him  universally  admired  and  famous.  He  was  taken  to  Eng- 
land at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  was  used  in 
founding  the  English  Thoroughbred  and  also  the  Norfolk  Trotter 
which  later  became  the  Hackney.  In  Russia  he  helped  pro- 
duce the  Orloff  Trotter,  and  the  Percheron  breed  of  France  is 
also  thought  to  owe  some  of  its  excellence  to  Arab  blood  in  its 
foundation.  Inasmuch  as  the  Yorkshire  Coach  Horse,  Cleve- 
land Bay,  American  Trotting  Horse,  American  Saddle  Horse, 
and  the  Morgan  are  all  sprung  largely  from  the  Thoroughbred, 
every  breed  of  light  horses  carries  the  blood  of  the  Arab  in  greater 
or  less  degree. 

Turk,  Barb,  and  Spanish  horses.— The  Turk,  or  Turkish 
horse,  found  in  portions  of  European  Turkey,  but  principally 
in  Asia  Minor,  was  of  considerable  importance  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  but  it  has  deteriorated  very  much  since  then. 
The  Barb  is  a  native  of  the  Barbary  States,  whence  its  name. 
It  is  found  in  its  greatest  perfection  among  the  Moors,  who 
introduced  the  Barb  blood  into  Spain  during  their  rule  in  that 
country,  and  so  improved  the  Spanish  horse  that  for  several 
centuries  it  occupied  the  first  place  throughout  Europe.  Span- 
ish horses  of  this  stock  brought  to  America  by  the  Spaniards 
are  regarded  as  the  progenitors  of  the  wild  horses  once  com- 
mon to  Mexico  and  California. 

Origin  of  the  running  horse. — In  later  times,  England  be- 
came the  center  of  horse  breeding  and  the  nursery  of  most  of 
the  present-day  breeds.  One  of  the  first  types  of  horses  de- 
veloped in  England  was  the  running  horse,  the  sport  of  racing 
having  been  fostered  there  from  an  early  date.  Long  before 
an  Arabian,  Barb,  or  Turk  stallion  set  foot  on  English  soil, 
a  strain  of  running  horses  of  considerable  excellence  had  been 
developed,  hence  the  Oriental  stallions  which  were  later  im- 
ported cannot  be  given  more  than  half  the  credit  for  founding 
the  running  horse  or  Thoroughbred.  The  Thoroughbred  owes 
his  origin  jointly  to  the  native  running  mares  of  England  and 
to  the  Arabian,  Barb,  and  Turk  stallions  imported  at  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  Great  Horse  or  War  Horse.— The  first  type  of  Eng- 
lish horse  was  the  "Great  Horse"  or  "War  Horse"  used  during 
the  Crusades  and  up  to  about  the  year  1600  to  carry  the  war- 
riors clad  in  their  suits  of  heavy  armor.  A  knight  in  heavy 
armor,  together  with  the  armor  for  his  horse,  weighed  about 


376         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

400  pounds,  hence  the  necessity  for  a  big,  strong  horse.  The 
native  English  horse  was  small,  and  in  order  to  increase  the 
size  and  strength,  Flemish  stallions  were  imported  from  Nor- 
mandy, and  for  nearly  500  years  English  breeders  centered 
their  attention  on  the  matter  of  size.  With  the  appearance  of 
gunpowder  and  firearms  in  warfare,  armor  was  made  useless 
and  the  heavy  war  horse  gave  way  to  much  lighter  animals 
with  more  speed. 

Origin  of  draft  type. — When  displaced  in  warfare,  the 
ponderous  war  horse  did  not  become  extinct,  but  was  put  to 
work  at  tilling  the  soil.  Prior  to  this,  field  labor  had  been  per- 
formed solely  by  oxen,  and  the  ox  continued  in  use  as  a  draft 
animal  even  after  horses  were  introduced  for  farm  work.  The 
war  horse  thus  became  an  agricultural  horse  and  in  time  was 
utilized  as  the  foundation  of  the  British  draft  breeds — the  Shire 
and  Clydesdale — just  as  the  Percheron  breed  was  built  up  from 
the  heavy  diligence  horses  used  in  France  in  the  early  days 
when  roads  were  deep  in  mud.  The  railroad  later  displaced 
the  diligence  horse  and  he  found  a  place  on  the  farm.  When  a 
demand  arose  from  cities  for  a  horse  suited  to  moving  heavy 
freight  through  the  streets,  these  agricultural  horses  in  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  France,  and  Belgium  were  bred  larger,  heavier, 
and  better  to  meet  the  new  demand,  and  thus  originated  the 
draft  breeds  as  we  know  them  today — Shire,  Clydesdale,  Perch- 
eron, and  Belgian.  This  occurred  in  the  first  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century. 

The  hunter. — Fox  hunting  in  England  dates  back  to  early 
times,  and  there  has  long  existed  a  demand  for  a  type  of  horse 
specially  adapted  to  this  sport.  Strange  to  say,  no  breed  of 
hunters  has  ever  been  developed,  the  demand  being  supplied 
by  Thoroughbreds  and  grade  Thoroughbreds  showing  the  hunter 
type. 

The  carriage  horse. — The  modern  type  of  carriage  horse 
originated  less  than  fifty  years  ago.  Prior  to  this,  there  was 
a  succession  of  types  dating  from  the  time  the  most  primitive 
carriages  came  into  use  centuries  ago.  Hence  the  term  car- 
riage horse  may  be  used  in  a  restricted  sense  or  in  a  broad  general 
sense,  and  the  carriage  horse  may  be  said  to  be  an  ancient  type 
or  a  modern  one,  according  as  the  term  is  used.  The  primitive 
carriage  horse  was  a  semi-wild  pony,  and  he  was  harnessed  to 
a  couple  of  long  poles,  fixed  at  one  end  to  the  pony's  neck,  the 
other  end  dragging  on  the  ground  beneath  the  load.  Next  in 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        377 

the  evolution  of  the  modern  carriage  came  the  sledge,  and  later 
came  a  sledge  mounted  on  rollers.  In  time  the  rollers  were  im- 
proved to  the  present  form  of  an  axle  and  wheels.  All  this  was 
before  the  Christian  era.  Centuries  more  elapsed  before  any- 
thing deserving  the  name  of  carriage  was  built. 

Carriages  were  first  used  by  the  nobility  of  England  about 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  but  the  roads  were  so 
bad  and  the  vehicles  so  heavy  that  they  were  of  little  service 
until  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  first  coaches  in 
England  and  America  were  objected  to  because  they  were  said 
to  obstruct  the  narrow  ways,  impede  traffic,  and  endanger  foot 
passengers.  It  was  about  1660  that  the  present  custom  of  driving 
for  pleasure  and  show  in  Hyde  Park,  London,  was  established. 
But  it  was  not  until  more  recent  times  that  driving  became  a  real 
pleasure,  for  carriage  springs  were  not  invented  until  about  1665 
and  in. their  first  form  appear  to  have  been  crude  and  inefficient. 
Toward  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  great  and  rapid 
improvement  was  begun  in  highways,  vehicles,  and  horses,  so 
that  the  the  rate  of  travel  was  increased  from  4  or  5  to  12  miles 
per  hour.  Then  came  the  railway,  displacing  the  road  coach 
and  consigning  the  carriage  horse  to  the  realm  of  pastime  and 
pleasure  exclusively. 

The  first  English  carriage  horse  was  the  old  black  cart 
horse,  or  shire  horse  as  he  was  called,  heavy,  ungainly,  with 
a  big  head  and  shaggy  fetlocks.  He  was  descended  from  the 
old-time  war  horse,  and  hence  was  of  Flemish  blood.  They 
were  so  slow  that  the  footmen  could  easily  go  ahead  when  nec- 
essary and  engage  lodging  at  the  next  inn.  As  highways  were 
improved  and  carriages  made  lighter,  the  cart  horse  was  crossed 
with  the  Thoroughbred  in  order  to  secure  lighter  and  faster 
animals  for  carriage  use.  In  this  way. originated  the  Cleveland 
Bay  and  Yorkshire  Coach  Horse — two  breeds  of  heavy  carriage 
horses. 

The  carriage  horse  as  we  know  him  today  is  comparatively 
a  new  type  in  both  Europe  and  America.  He  is  a  medium- 
sized  animal  with  outstanding  beauty  and  attractiveness  in 
both  form  and  action.  The  demand  for  such  a  horse  did  not 
arise  until  city  streets  were  improved  and  carriages  made  elegant 
and  comfortable,  so  that  driving  became  a  pleasure  rather  than 
a  painful  necessity.  Increase  in  wealth  during  the  past  half- 
century  and  the  creation  of  a  larger  leisure  class  of  people  also 
helped  to  create  a  demand  for  this  special  type  of  horse.  From 


378        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

what  was  called  the  Norfolk  Trotter,  which  was  a  fast-trot- 
ting, plain,  serviceable,  moderate-sized  horse  formerly  used 
by  English  farmers  as  a  road  horse  (and  used  by  them  under 
saddle),  there  was  developed  in  England  the  Hackney,  which 
is  today  the  foremost  breed  of  carriage  horses.  The  Norfolk 
Trotter  originated  at  about  the  same  time  as  the  Thorough- 
bred, being  the  result  of  crossing  Arabian  and  other  Oriental 
sires  on  mares  showing  aptitude  for  the  trotting  gait,  just  as 
the  Thoroughbred  resulted  from  the  crossing  of  these  same 
sires  on  native  running  mares  of  proven  ability  on  the  turf. 
Although  the  Hackney  is  the  only  true  breed  of  carriage  horses, 
other  breeds  not  infrequently  produce  individuals  of  this  type 
which  help  to  supply  the  demand. 

The  polo  pony. — The  game  of  polo  was  introduced  into 
England  in  1874,  and  to  America  two  years  later.  This  sport 
calls  for  an  active,  rugged  pony  of  about  14-2  hands,  and  those 
which  best  serve  the  purpose  are  small-sized  or  dwarf  Thor- 
oughbred horses.  A  breed  of  polo  ponies  is  now  being  developed 
in  England. 

The  horse  in  America. — From  an  equine  standpoint,  his- 
tory repeats  itself  to  a  considerable  degree  in  America  and  also 
records  the  creation  of  at  least  two  new  and  distinct  types  of 
horses.  There  were  no  horses  on  this  continent  at  the  time  of 
its  discovery,  hence  American  horse  history  dates  from  1492. 
The  first  horses  were  brought  to  this  continent  by  Cortes  and 
Ferdinand  De  Soto.  Cortes  used  but  few  horses  in  his  con- 
quest of  Mexico,  some  of  which  undoubtedly  became  the  pro- 
genitors of  the  wild  horse  of  the  western  plains.  Similarly, 
horses  abandoned  by  De  Soto  near  the  Texas  border  no  doubt 
survived  and  were  the  principal  foundation  of  the  American 
wild  horse. 

In  colonial  times,  the  most  common  type  of  horse  was  a 
small  saddle  horse  measuring  not  more  than  14  hands.  These 
were  the  descendants  of  the  small,  unimproved  European  horses 
brought  over  by  the  first  settlers  and  were  of  no  particular  breed 
or  breeding.  This  little  colonial  saddle  horse  was  indispensable 
as  a  utility  animal,  being  practically  the  sole  means  of  trans- 
portation in  those  early  times.  He  was  likewise  a  source  of 
amusement  and  recreation,  being  used  in  running  matches  of 
short  distances.  For  this  latter  purpose,  however,  the  little 
saddler  soon  gave  way  to  the  English  Thoroughbred  imported  quite 
extensively  by  the  early  settlers  of  the  Carolinas  and  Virginia. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        379 

Field  labor  was  performed  by  oxen,  except  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  New  York  where  Flemish  horses  had  been  intro- 
duced from  Holland.  This  Flemish  horse  was;  as  we  have  al- 
ready seen,  a  large  and  rather  ungainly  animal,  and  when  the 
colonies  expanded  westward,  this  horse  was  used  to  haul  freight 
over  the  mountains  from  eastern  ports  to  Pittsburg  and  Wheel- 
ing. It  required  12,000  wagons  annually,  each  pulled  by  four 
or  six  horses,  driven  tandem,  to  carry  on  the  vast  freighting 
business  which  developed,  and  the  freight  bill  amounted  to 
$1,500,000  in  a  year.  The  wagons  were  called  Conestoga  wagons, 
and  the  horses  were  given  the  same  name.  With  the  coming  of 
the  railroad  and  the  river  boat,  the  Conestoga  horses  and  wagons 
were  quickly  displaced  and  no  further  efforts  were  made  to 
breed  heavy  horses  in  America  until  very  recent  times.  The 
blood  of  the  Conestoga  was  absorbed  into  the  common  stock 
of  the  country  and  the  type  became  extinct.  Thus  we  see  that 
colonial  horse  stocks  were  of  three  types  only: — (1)  the  little 
saddle  horse,  (2)  the  Thoroughbred,  and  (3)  the  Conestoga. 

Origin  of  the  roadster  type. — With  the  opening  of  road- 
ways, vehicles  were  quickly  brought  into  use,  so  quickly  indeed 
that  the  so-called  roads  over  which  they  were  driven  were  little 
more  than  clearings  through  the  woods  with  here  and  there  a 
"corduroy"  of  logs  to  make  passable  some  marshy  spot.  The 
roads  were  first  improved  in  the  more  thickly  settled  parts  of 
the  country,  and  it  was  thus  about  Philadelphia  that  the  road- 
ster type  of  horse  was  originated  at  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  in  response  to  the  demand  for  a  horse  suitable 
for  road  driving  and  harness  racing.  The  American  trotting 
horse  or  roadster  was  derived  from  four  sources:  (1)  the  Eng- 
lish Thoroughbred,  (2)  the  Norfolk  Trotter,  (3)  the  Arab  and 
Barb,  and  (4)  certain  pacers  of  mixed  breeding,  By  selecting 
and  breeding  for  speed  at  the  trot,  the  American  Trotter  has 
been  developed  and  today  may  be  called  a  true  breed,  although 
the  individuals  composing  it  show  considerable  divergence  in 
type.  In  Vermont  the  Morgan  horse  was  developed.  The 
Morgans  descended  from  one  horse,  Justin  Morgan,  whose  sire 
was  a  Thoroughbred,  but  whose  dam  was  of  unknown  breeding. 
While  often  regarded  as  a  distinct  breed,  they  really  constitute 
one  family  of  the  American  Trotter. 

American  Saddle  Horse. — At  the  time  roads  were  being 
improved  in  the  East,  Kentucky  and  the  West  were  still  a  country 
of  bridle  paths  only.  The  blue-grass  region  of  Kentucky  is 


380         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

splendidly  adapted  to  the  production  of  light  horses,  and  it  was 
principally  in  that  state  and  Missouri  that  the  American  Saddle 
Horse  breed  originated  and  developed.  Kentucky  was  settled 
in  1775,  and  as  early  as  1802  it  was  said  that  "almost  all  of  the 
inhabitants  employ  themselves  in  training  and  ameliorating 
the  breed  of  horses."  The  American  Saddle  Horse  originated 
from  crosses  of  the  Thoroughbred  upon  pacers  of  mixed  breeding 
which  had  been  brought  from  Canada.  Considerable  Morgan 
blood  entered  into  the  making  of  the  breed  also.  Starting  with 
these  materials,  a  type  of  saddle  horse  possessing  great  intelli- 
gence and  beauty  was  established.  These  horses  are  taught 
five  or  more  distinct  gaits,  and  as  a  result  of  years  of  selection 
and  breeding,  there  is  today  a  natural  inclination  on  the  part 
of  the  American  Saddle  Horse  to  show  these  gaits,  which  include 
not  only  the  walk,  trot,  and  canter,  but  also  the  rack,  running 
walk,  fox  trot,  and  slow  pace. 

The  general-purpose  horse. — When  the  railway  displaced 
the  Conestoga  horse,  many  farmers  attempted  to  produce  what 
was  styled  "the  horse  of  all  work/'  By  this  was  meant  a  gen- 
eral-purpose horse  useful  to  wagon,  plow,  or  under  saddle.  The 
early  agricultural  papers  were  full  of  advice  to  farmers  that 
such  a  type  be  bred,  and  fair  associations  encouraged  the  move- 
ment by  offering  prizes  for  this  class  of  horses.  From  1840  to 
1850  the  "horse  of  all  work"  was  the  horse  of  the  day.  About 
1850,  the  first  draft  stallions  were  imported  from  Europe,  but 
they  were  not  brought  over  with  the  idea  of  producing  draft 
horses  in  this  country,  but  to  breed  to  the  small  native  mares, 
with  which  this  country  was  well  supplied,  in  order  to  produce 
a  general-purpose  horse.  Prior  to  this  there  were  some  attempts 
to  produce  such  a  horse  by  crossing  the  Thoroughbred  and  the 
Conestoga,  but  the  progeny  possessed  most  of  the  defects  of 
both  parents  and  were  utterly  unsuited  for  farm  use  or  anything 
else.  By  1870,  breeders  had  come  to  realize  that  there  is  more 
profit  in  producing  specialized  types  of  horses  useful  for  special 
purposes,  rather  than  a  single  general-purpose  type  not  capable 
of  doing  anything  well.  Thus,  although  articles  still  appear 
occasionally  in  farm  papers  advising  the  production  of  a  general- 
purpose  horse,  and  although  some  county  fair  associations  persist 
in  offering  prizes  for  this  ancient  type,  the  general-purpose  horse 
died  a  natural  death  a  half-century  ago.  Let  him  rest  in  peace. 

The  draft  type  in  America. — About  1870,  there  arose  a 
strong  demand  from  cities  for  a  heavy  horse,  and  since  that 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        381 

date  hundreds  of  Percheron,  Belgian,  Shire,  and  Clydesdale 
stallions  and  mares  have  been  imported  to  America  annually 
for  the  purpose  of  breeding  heavy  horses  fitted  for  the  work  of 
moving  heavy  loads  over  city  streets — in  other  words,  draft 
horses.  America  developed  no  draft  breed  of  her  own.  After 
the  Conestoga  disappeared  we  had  no  heavy  horses  to  use  as 
a  foundation  for  such  a  breed,  and  when  the  demand  arose  in 
this  country  several  European  countries  had  draft  breeds  ready 
formed  which  we  borrowed  from  them. 

The  carriage  horse  in  America. — In  America,  as  in  Eng- 
land, the  modern  carriage  horse  is  a  recent  addition  to  our  types 
of  horses.  The  more  wealthy  families  among  the  early  settlers 
of  the  Carolinas  and  Virginia  kept  coaches  for  use  on  state  and 
social  occasions,  but  the  so-called  roads  were  so  miserable  that 
driving  was  in  no  wise  a  pleasure.  Most  of  the  carriages  in  use 
in  the  early  days  were  stage  coaches  which  did  the  work  now 
done  by  railways.  In  1812,  the  fare  from  Philadelphia  to  Pitts- 
burg  over  the  national  turnpike,  297  miles,  was  $20  by  coach, 
and  it  required  six  days  to  cover  the  distance.  Crosses  of  the 
Flemish  horse  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  with  the  little 
saddle  horse  gave  the  well-knit,  sizeable  horses  required  on 
these  early  coaches.  With  the  growth  of  towns  and  cities, 
carriages  became  common,  but  the  horses  used  would  not  today 
be  classed  as  carriage  horses  although  they  were  of  a  serviceable 
kind.  Driving  for  pleasure  and  pastime,  which  in  later  years 
became  so  popular  with  city  people,  did  not  begin  until  after 
the  Civil  War,  in  fact  it  was  not  until  1880  that  the  modern  type 
of  carriage  horse  came  into  use.  From  that  date  forward, 
there  was  a  large  and  increasing  demand  for  smoothly-turned, 
high-stepping,  well-mannered  horses,  weighing  from  1,000  to 
1,200  pounds.  The  animals  which  supplied  this  demand  were 
for  the  most  part  recruited  from  the  ranks  of  the  American 
Trotter  and  American  Saddle  Horse,  although  our  very  choicest 
carriage  animals  have  been  English  Hackneys.  Since  1900,  the 
automobile  has  displaced  a  great  many  carriage  horses,  especially 
those  of  mediocre  quality,  but  there  still  exists  a  demand  for 
animals  of  show-yard  quality  for  which  good  prices  are  paid. 

Effects  of  mechanical  inventions  on  horse  types. — The  in- 
vention of  firearms  resulted  in  a  change  in  the  type  of  the  cavalry 
horse  from  the  old-time  heavy  war  horse  to  a  lighter  animal 
with  more  speed.  The  displaced  type  did  not  become  extinct, 
but  was  put  to  use  in  the  fields.  The  invention  of  the  railway 


382        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

and  steamboat  and  the  building  of  canals  restricted  the  horse's 
field  of  usefulness  by  displacing  the  stage  coaches  and  the  Cones- 
toga  horses  and  wagons.  The  Conestoga  type  then  became 
extinct,  being  mingled  and  absorbed  into  the  common  stock 
of  the  country.  In  France  the  diligence  horse  was  gradually 
developed  into  the  Percheron  breed.  The  application  of  elec- 
tric power  to  street  railways  in  1888  closed  a  channel  of  disposal 
for  thousands  of  cheap  horses  such  as  were  used  on  the  old-time 
horse  cars,  and  the  perfection  of  the  bicycle  and  the  fad  for 
cycling  which  followed  led  many  to  believe  a  horseless  age  was 
at  hand.  But  the  street  car  horse  was  not  a  profitable  animal 
to  produce,  and  many  who  took  up  the  bicycle  never  owned  a 
horse  anyway.  Horses  came  into  greater  demand  and  brought 
higher  prices  than  ever  before. 

Next  came  the  automobile,  the  motor  truck,  and  the  tractor 
and  again  a  horseless  age  was  predicted.  It  is  a  fact  that 
the  motor  is  the  strongest  mechanical  competitor  the  horse  has 
had  to  meet,  and  while  it  is  impossible  at  this  time  to  say  with 
exactness  what  the  effects  will  be  on  horse  production,  enough 
time  has  elapsed  to  show  that  the  horse  yet  has  an  important 
place  on  city  streets  and  on  roadways,  as  well  as  on  the  farm. 
The  automobile,  motor  truck,  and  tractor  are  not  only  doing  the 
work  that  is  also  done  by  horses,  but  they  are  doing  work  which 
the  horse  cannot  do.  In  other  words,  the  motor  has  to  a  large 
extent  created  its  own  necessity.  There  is,  on  the  other  hand, 
a  vast  amount  of  horse  work  of  various  kinds  which  cannot  be 
done  by  motors.  The  horse  and  the  motor  each  occupy  fields 
of  their  own,  the  margins  of  which  overlap  to  some  extent,  and 
here  competition  between  the  horse  and  motor  is  keen.  The 
carriage  horse  and  roadster  have  felt  this  competition  most. 

Many  large  business  firms  have  sold  their  draft  horses  and 
installed  motor  trucks,  only  to  discover  that  the  short  haul 
may  be  made  more  economically  with  horses,  and  they  have 
therefore  reinstated  horse  equipment  along  with  their  motor 
trucks.  Farmers  have  found  that  tractor  manufacturers  are 
o\er-enthusiastic  regarding  the  tractor's  ability  to  displace  the 
horse  upon  the  farm.  The  horse's  place  in  the  realm  of  sport 
is  undisturbed  by  the  automobile.  Saddle  horses,  including 
the  hunter  and  polo  pony,  are  in  great  demand,  while  racing  in 
harness  and  under  saddle  continues  to  prosper  throughout  the 
country. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


383 


Classification  of  the  breeds. — The  various  breeds  of  horses 
may  be  classified  according  to  type  as  follows,  mention  also 
being  made  of  the  place  of  origin  of  each  breed : 


Draft  Type 

Percheron France 

Belgian Belgium 

Shire England 

Clydesdale Scotland 

Suffolk England 

Roadster  Type 

American  Trotter United  States 

Morgan United  States 

Orloff  Trotter .  .          . .  Russia 


Carriage  Type 

Hackney » England 

Cleveland  Bay England 

Yorkshire  Coach England 

French  Coach France 

German  Coach Germany 

Saddle  Type 

American  Saddle  Horse.  .United  States 

Thoroughbred England 

Arabian . .  . .  Arabia 


CHAPTER  XXX. 
DRAFT  TYPE. 

The  first  question  which  presents  itself  is — What  is  a  draft 
horse?  A  draft  horse  is  a  horse  adapted  to  the  work  of  pulling 
heavy  loads  at  a  walk.  The  farmer  who  produces  draft  geld- 
ings for  sale  looks  to  the  city  for  a  purchaser,  for  in  the  cities 
the  greatest  demand  is  found,  and  the  big,  heavy  drafter  there 
finds  ready  sale  at  a  good  figure.  The  conditions  of  street 
traffic  in  large  cities  demand  the  hauling  of  the  largest  possible 
loads.  Distances  are  great  and  delays  waste  much  time.  At 
street  crossings,  bridges,  and  at  railway  crossings,  minutes  are 
lost  that  in  a  day  count  up  to  hours.  At  sidings  and  warehouses, 
it  is  a  lucky  chance  if  a  team  can  get  up  to  its  door  or  car  with- 
out waiting  for  one  or  more  wagons  to  be  loaded  or  unloaded 
ahead  of  it.  There  is  thus  a  natural  tendency  for  teamsters 
to  haul  big  loads  in  order  to  move  the  freight,  and  this  makes 
big  horses  necessary.  Furthermore,  big  wagons,  big  loads,  and 
big  horses  enable  merchants  to  move  the  goods  with  less  equip- 
ment and  fewer  drivers,  and  lessen  expenditures  for  shoeing, 
feed,  stabling,  harness,  and  repairs.  There  is  thus  a  tendency 
toward  big  horses  and  big  loads  in  all  cases  where  quick  delivery 
is  not  imperative,  and  where  loading  and  unloading  are  done 
at  one  or  a  few  points.  The  heavy  loading  of  wagons  has  gone 
so  far  that  many  cities  have  placed  restrictions  upon  the  size 
of  loads,  in  order  to  protect  draft  animals  from  abuse.  In 
Chicago,  the  maximum  load  for  a  single  horse  or  mule  is  3,500 
pounds,  and  when  two  or  more  horses  are  hitched  together, 
the  maximum  is  4,000  pounds  per  animal. 

We  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  drafter  is  not  only  adapted 
to  pulling  heavy  loads  at  a  slow  gait,  but  that  this  work  is  done 
on  hard  pavements  in  the  city.  The  draft  horse  not  only  does 
the  hardest  kind  of  work  required  of  horses,  but  he  works  under 
conditions  which  put  his  feet  and  legs  to  a  severe  test.  The 
drafter  may  be  said  to  be  the  real  business  horse,  whereas  the 
carriage  horse,  roadster,  and  saddle  horse  are  largely  used  for 
pleasure  purposes. 

In  order  to  do  the  work  required  of  him,  the  draft  horse 
must  possess  the  following  qualifications — (1)  weight,  (2) 

384 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        385 

strength,  (3)  true,  snappy  action,  (4)  endurance  and  durability, 
(5)  feeding  capacity,  and  (6)  good  disposition. 

Weight. — This  is  decidedly  essential.  The  heavier  the 
horse,  the  more  adhesion  he  has  to  the  ground.  When  a  horse 
is  working  in  harness,  the  traces  tend  to  lift  the  fore  feet  off 
the  ground,  and  for  this  reason  a  heavy  horse  is  able  to  use 
his  weight  to  good  advantage.  In  stage-coach  days  it  was  a 
common  trick  for  the  driver  to  throw  a  bag  of  meal  across  a 
horses'  back,  or  get  upon  a  horse  himself,  in  case  the  coach  got 
into  a  place  where  a  hard  pull  was  necessary.  By  so  doing,  his 
team  was  often  able  to  start  the  load  without  other  assistance. 
The  added  weight  produced  more  adhesion  between  the  feet 
and  the  ground,  thus  enabling  the  animal  to  exert  all  his  strength 
at  a  pull,  instead  of  uselessly  "scratching  gravel"  when  trying 
to  start. 

Standing  on  a  hard  surface,  a  man  of  200  pounds  weight 
can  easily  outpull  a  man  of  150  pounds  in  a  tug-of-war,  for  the 
reason  just  explained.  If  the  150-pound  man  take  another  man 
upon  his  shoulders  and  back,  however,  he  can  defeat  his  opponent 
who  outweighs  him  by  50  pounds.  The  man  on  the  shoulders 
of  the  150-pound  contestant  adds  nothing  to  the  muscular  power 
at  that  end  of  the  rope,  but  rather  lessens  it;  but  the  added 
weight  and  the  increase  in  adhesion  permit  the  full  strength  of 
muscles  to  be  more  nearly  exerted,  and  the  200-pound  man  is 
readily  defeated. 

The  horse  moves  a  load  by  (1)  simply  leaning  against  the 
collar,  and  (2)  by  muscular  strength.  Thus,  weight  has  a  sec- 
ond advantage  in  that  it  takes  the  place  of  some  of  the  mus- 
cular energy,  for  the  weight  of  a  heavy  horse  more  nearly  off- 
sets the  weight  of  the  load  than  does  the  weight  of  a  smaller 
horse,  and  every  extra  pound  thrown  against  the  collar  means 
a  corresponding  reduction  in  muscular  force  required  in  moving 
the  load.  Then,  too,  as  a  rule,  the  larger  the  horse,  the  stronger 
he  will  be. 

To  sum  up,  weight  in  the  draft  horse  has  three  values— 
(1)  It  gives  the  feet  more  adhesion  with  the  pavement  or  ground, 
so  that  the  muscular  power  may  be  applied  to  the  collar,  (2)  by 
offsetting  some  of  the  weight  of  the  load,  it  lessens  the  amount 
of  muscular  exertion  required,  and  (3)  as  a  rule,  the  heavier 
the  horse,  the  stronger  he  will  be.  Some  horses  make  up  for  a 
lack  of  weight  by  their  superior  ambition  and  courage. 


386         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Strength. — This  is  a  matter  of  muscling.  Draft  horses 
must  be  very  muscular  throughout,  especially  in  the  hind- 
quarters. When  judging  drafters,  fat  should  not  be  mistaken 
for  muscle. 

Action. — Action  that  is  straight  and  true  insures  conser- 
vation of  energy  and  sure-footedness.  The  action  should  also 
be  snappy;  this  enables  the  animal  to  get  over  the  ground  rapidly, 
and  shows  a  willing  disposition.  Action  is  also  valuable  as  an 
index  to  the  way  the  horse  is  put  together;  true  action  can  result 
only  from  proper  placing  of  the  feet  and  legs,  in  fact,  from  a 
proper  proportionment  of  all  parts,  and  their  proper  relation 
to  one  another.  Correct  action,  showing  trueness,  snap,  and 
length  of  stride,  results  from  a  rather  rare  combination  of  proper 
structure,  muscling,  and  temperament.  Therefore,  good  action 
is  not  only  valuable  in  itself,  but  is  good  evidence  of  merit  in 
the  entire  make-up  of  the  horse. 

Endurance  and  durability. — Endurance  means  the  ability 
to  do  the  day's  work  without  fagging.  Durability  means  the 
ability  to  work  day  after  day  without  breaking  down  under  the 
strain.  Endurance  is  concerned  mostly  with  wind,  muscling, 
and  feeding  capacity,  while  durability  depends  mostly  upon 
the  feet  and  legs.  Some  first-hand  horses  last  but  six  months, 
or  even  less,  on  city  streets.  Others  last  as  long  as  fifteen  years, 
and,  in  some  cases,  even  longer.  If  a  draft  horse  goes  to  pieces 
quickly  when  put  to  work,  he  is  a  considerable  loss  to  the  owner. 
Feet  and  legs  are  the  parts  most  liable  to  prove  defective.  Lack 
of  wind  is  a  common  fault.  The  horse  with  a  short  rib  seldom 
stands  up  to  hard  labor  very  long.  Buyers  refuse  to  invest 
much  money  in  horses  that  are  shallow  bodied  and  cut  up  high 
in  the  flank,  such  animals  being  poor  feeders. 

Feeding  capacity. — The  horse  is  comparable  to  a  locomo- 
tive. He  consumes  hay  and  grain  for  fuel.  Other  things  being 
equal,  the  greater  the  amount  of  fuel  consumed,  the  greater  the 
work  that  can  be  done.  The  drafter  should  be  a  good  feeder. 

Disposition. — To  be  of  great  usefulness,  a  draft  horse  must 
be  a  prompt,  willing  worker  that  will  be  pleasant  to  handle, 
active,  and  quick  to  respond  to  commands,  yet  quiet  and  docile. 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TYPE. 

General  appearance. — The  form  of  the  draft  horse  is  low 
set,  broad,  deep,  massive,  compact,  symmetrical,  and  stylish. 
He  should  have  a  short  back  and  a  long  underline.  He  must 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


387 


weigh  not  less  than  1,600  pounds,  and  ton  horses  are  the  sort 
to  keep  in  mind  as  draft  horses.  Weights  over  a  ton  are  not 
uncommon.  It  has  been  estimated,  on  the  basis  of  weights 
and  prices  for  horses  at  the  large  markets,  that  every  100  pounds 
above  1,500  adds  $25.00  to  the  horse's  value.  As  to  height, 
drafters  usually  stand  from  16  to  17  hands  at  the  withers.  The 
height  over  the  hips  should  be  no  greater  than  at  the  withers, 
as  this  detracts  from  the  symmetrical  appearance,  throws  more 
weight  upon  the  forequarters,  and  makes  the  action  stilted  and 
heavy.  Although  the  short-legged  horse  is  more  powerful,  the 


31 


Fig.  125.     Points  of  the  Horse. 


1. 

Muzzle 

12. 

Crest 

22. 

Fetlock  joint 

32. 

Croup 

2. 

Nostril 

13. 

Withers 

23. 

Pastern 

33. 

Tail 

3. 

Face 

14. 

Shoulder 

24. 

Coronet 

34. 

Thigh 

4. 

Eye 

15. 

Point  of  shoulder 

25. 

Foot 

35. 

Point  of 

buttock 

5. 

Forehead 

16. 

Breast 

26. 

Ribs 

36. 

Quarters 

6. 

Ear 

17. 

Arm 

27. 

Belly 

37. 

Stifle 

7. 

Poll 

18. 

Elbow 

28. 

Flank 

38. 

Gaskin 

8. 

Cheek 

19. 

Forearm 

29. 

Back 

39. 

Hock 

9. 

Jaw 

20. 

Knee 

30. 

Coupling 

40. 

Chestnut 

10. 

Throttle 

21. 

Cannon 

31. 

Hip 

41. 

Sheath 

11. 

Neck 

horse  with  slightly  more  length  of  leg  will  take  a  longer  stride, 
and  may  therefore  be  more  useful.    Some  buyers  also  prefer  a 


388         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

certain  degree  of  height  in  the  drafter  because  they  use  wagons 
with  a  high  top  or  cover,  and  a  short-legged  horse  would  not  be 
in  harmony  with  such  vehicles.  At  this  point,  it  may  be  men- 
tioned that  a  great  many  firms  desire  horses  which  are  not  only 
able  to  do  their  work  successfully,  but  which  also  have  con- 
siderable style  and  beauty  that  will  attract  attention  on  the 
streets  and  help  to  advertise  the  firm  and  its  business.  To  this 
end,  a  great  deal  of  money  is  invested  in  vehicles  nicely  designed 
and  ornamented,  which  are  horsed  with  animals  that  add  to, 
rather  than  detract  from,  the  appearance  of  the  turnout.  Buy- 
ers keep  the  vehicle  in  mind  when  buying  horses. 

Quality  and  substance,  as  shown  in  head,  hair,  hoofs,  bone, 
and  joints,  should  be  preeminent.  Substance  refers  particularly 
to  the  size  of  the  bone  as  shown  in  cannons  and  joints,  while 
quality  refers  to  the  fineness  of  texture  of  all  parts.  Quality 
associated  with  substance  insures  good  wearing  qualities.  Qual- 
ity is  shown  in  bone  that  is  hard  and  smooth,  joints  that  are 
well  defined,  or  clean,  and  cannons  and  pasterns  that  are  entirely 
free  from  meatiness.  As  previously  explained,  it  is  objectionable 
for  a  horse  to  be  meaty  in  his  knees  or  hocks  or  in  the  parts 
below  them.  The  term  "clean,"  as  applied  to  the  hocks,  knees, 
cannons,  ankles,  and  pasterns,  means  that  these  parts  are  en- 
tirely free  from  meatiness,  swelling,  or  other  unnatural  develop- 
ment, so  that  the  natural  structure  is  sharply  and  clearly  defined. 
Clean  legs  are  one  of  the  best  and  most  important  evidences 
of  good  quality.  The  cannons  of  some  draft  breeds  have  more 
or  less  long  hair,  called  "feather."  If  it  is  fine  and  "pily," 
rather  than  coarse  and  curly,  it  indicates  quality,  for  fine  hair 
seldom  covers  rough,  coarse  bone.  The  entire  coat,  including 
mane  and  tail,  also  indicates  quality  if  the  hair  is  soft  and  fine. 
The  horse  with  quality  will  have  a  head  of  medium  size,  a  neat 
ear,  a  trim  muzzle,  and  a  chiseled  appearance  about  the  face 
and  jaws.  He  also  has  hoofs  of  fine  texture  which  will  wear 
well,  and  his  joints  are  less  subject  to  bony  diseases. 

Head. — The  size  of  the  head  should  be  proportionate  to 
the  size  of  the  horse.  A  pony  head  is  not  the  right  sort  for  a 
draft  horse,  and  a  barrel  head  indicates  coarseness  and  lack  of 
good  breeding.  Every  line  and  feature  should  be  distinct,— 
there  should  be  a  chiseled  appearance  that  indicates  character, 
quality,  and  good  breeding.  Great  width  between  the  eyes 
and  a  broad,  full  forehead  show  intelligence.  The  eye  should 
be  large,  bright,  clear,  and  very  prominent,  to  insure  good  vision, 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        389 

for  the  horse  should  be  able  to  see  where  he  is  stepping.  The 
nose  and  muzzle  should  be  broad,  indicating  a  good  feeder. 
The  nostrils  should  be  large  (but  not  permanently  distended), 
to  provide  easy  breathing.  Trim  lips  that  are  thin  show  quality 
and  refinement.  Strong  cheeks,  and  jaws  that  are  wide  across 
underneath,  provide  good  grinding  ability  for  proper  mastication 
of  feed.  The  ears  should  be  of  fine  texture  and  medium  size, 
and  should  be  set  well  up  toward  the  poll  and  carried  alert. 


Fig.  126.     The  Draft  Type. 

Big  Jim,  four  times  champion  draft  gelding  at  the  International.  Mr. 
J.  H.  S.  Johnstone,  of  the  Live  Stock  World,  wrote  the  following  regarding 
Big  Jim  when  announcing  his  death  in  1910:  "There  never  was  a  prouder 
stepper  in  harness,  and  there  never  was  a  big  one  that  held  himself  together 
and  went  at  his  work  in  a  more  sprightly  manner.  His  size  was  immense — 
2,385  pounds — and  not  one  of  his  competitors  ever  approached  him  in  that 
regard.  Personally  I  do  not  expect  to  see  his  like  again." 

Ears  set  down  on  the  side  of  the  head  and  carried  in  a  lopping 
fashion  decidedly  injure  the  appearance.  The  expression  of 
the  eye  and  the  carriage  of  the  ear  are  good  evidences  of  the 
.temperament  and  disposition.  The  head  should  be  of  medium 


390         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

length,  and,  as  viewed  in  profile,  the  face  line  should  be  rather 
straight.  A  Roman  face  line  indicates  a  strong,  determined 
will,  and  is  not  desirable. 

Neck. — The  neck  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  at  least 
medium  long,  and  should  be  very  muscular,  with  some  degree 
of  crest  or  arch  to  the  top.  The  crest  should  be  pronounced 
in  the  stallion,  but  not  so  excessive  as  to  break  over  to  one  side. 
At  the  junction  with  the  body,  the  neck  should  be  very  deep, 
but  at  the  throttle  it  should  be  very  trim  and  rather  cut  up 
underneath,  with  no  fullness  or  thickness  there  to  bring  pressure 
on  the  windpipe.  The  head  and  neck  should  be  carried  well 
up,  to  insure  good  vision,  lighten  the  forehand,  and  improve 
the  appearance. 

Shoulders. — The  shoulders  should  be  very  deep,  muscular, 
and  have  much  slope.  An  upright  shoulder  results  in  trans- 
mission of  shock,  and  also  in  shortness  of  stride.  A  sloping, 
muscular  shoulder  that  is  laid  in  snugly  is  conducive  to  good 
action.  Frequently,  the  shoulders  are  too  open  and  prominent, 
so  that  the  horse  does  not  stand  over  his  legs  as  he  should.  Such 
horses  do  not  take  a  straight  stride,  but  swing  their  legs  outward 
when  in  action. 

Withers. — The  tops  of  the  shoulder  blades  should  come 
well  together  so  that  the  withers  may  be  well  defined,  though 
muscular,  and  not  as  sharp  as  in  the  lighter  kinds  of  horses. 

Breast  and  chest. — The  breast  should  be  very  wide  and 
very  muscular.  The  chest  should  be  full,  wide,  and  deep,  to 
provide  room  for  heart  and  lungs.  The  horse  is  an  athlete,  and 
large  lungs  and  good  heart  action  are  very  essential.  A  con- 
tracted heart-girth  shows  lack  of  constitution.  There  is  no 
such  thing  as  too  much  heart-girth  or  chest  capacity. 

Arm. — The  arm  should  be  very  muscular,  and  should  be 
thrown  forward  to  give  slope  to  the  shoulder. 

Forearm. — The  forearm  should  be  powerfully  muscled, 
so  that  as  viewed  from  the  side  it  appears  very  broad  next  to 
the  body,  tapering  to  the  knee.  No  muscles  are  present  below 
the  knees  and  hocks,  hence  the  action  is  dependent  upon  the 
muscles  above  these  joints. 

Knee. — The  knee  must  be  broad  from  every  point  of  view, 
and  must  be  deep  from  top  to  bottom.  This  provides  a  large 
joint,  indicating  strength.  The  knee  must  also  be  straight,  so 
as  to  set  the  leg  straight  below  the  body.  There  must  be  no 
meatiness  about  the  knee  or  any  of  the  joints  or  parts  below, 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        391 

for,  as  has  been  stated,  all  muscles  end  above  the  knee  and  are 
attached  to  the  parts  below  by  tendons.  Meatiness  about  the 
knee  interferes  with  the  working  of  the  tendons,  and  lessens  the 
free  and  easy  flexion  of  the  joints.  Hence  the  knee  should  be 
clean,  flat  across  the  front,  and  well  defined.  This  is  essential. 

Cannons. — The  cannons  should  be  short  and  clean,  with 
the  tendons  large  and  set  well  back  from  the  bone.  As  viewed 
from  the  side,  there  should  be  good  width,  and  the  cannon  should 
be  flat  instead  of  round.  As  one  passes  the  hand  along  the 
cannon  bone,  it  should  feel  smooth,  hard,  and  dense.  The 
skin  and  hair  covering  it  should  be  fine.  Between  the  bone  and 
the  tendons  there  should  be  well-marked  depressions  or  grooves. 
Meatiness  about  the  cannons  is  as  objectionable  as  it  is  about 
the  joints,  and  for  similar  reasons.  The  cannons  furnish  one 
of  the  best  means  of  determining  quality.  Clean,  flat,  smooth 
cannons  have  bone  that  is  composed  of  fine  cells,  and  that  is 
flinty  in  character.  Coarse,  rough  bone  is  made  up  of  large 
cells,  and  is  porous  and  spongy.  Too  much  refinement  of  bone 
is  often  found  in  the  draft  horse.  On  the  other  hand,  large 
bone  is  frequently  found  which  is  very  lacking  in  quality.  There 
should  be  a  combination  of  substance  with  quality.  It  is  possi- 
ble to  make  up  in  quality  a  certain  lack  of  substance,  but  not 
the  contrary. 

Fetlock  joint. — The  fetlock  joint  should  be  wide  from  front 
to  back,  clean,  and  well  defined. 

Pasterns. — The  pasterns  should  be  oblique  to  relieve  con- 
cussion, and  should  show  reasonable  length.  A  slope  of  about 
forty-five  degrees  is  desired.  More  slope  than  this  tends  to- 
ward weakness.  The  pasterns  should  show  plenty  of  sub- 
stance, yet  be  clean,  and  should  spread  out  or  expand  at  the 
lower  end  into  wide,  round,  open  hoof-heads  or  coronets. 

Feet. — The  old  saying,  "No  foot,  no  horse/'  is  full  of  truth. 
A  draft  horse  of  excellence  in  all  respects  except  feet  is  as  worth- 
less as  a  fine  building  on  a  flimsy  foundation.  When  it  is  con- 
sidered to  what  great  stress  the  foot  of  the  draft  horse  is  sub- 
jected, the  wonder  is  that  feet  last  as  long  as  they  do  on  hard 
pavements.  Driven  against  cobblestones  and  brick  by  the 
great  weight  of  the  body  above,  the  fore  feet  undergo  repeated 
shocks  which  soon  batter  to  pieces  feet  that  are  defective.  The 
foot  should  be  large,  to  afford  a  large  bearing  surface.  When 
viewed  from  front  or  side,  the  axis  of  the  foot  should  coincide 
with  the  axis  of  the  pastern.  The  hoof  should  appear  dense, 


392         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

waxy,  and  smooth,  indicating  toughness  and  durability.  The 
form  of  the  hoof  should  be  round.  Inasmuch  as  the  wall  of 
the  hoof  grows  out  from  the  coronet  or  hoof -head,  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  foot  will  depend  largely  upon  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  hoof -head,  which  should  therefore  be  large  and  round. 
A  foot  that  is  large  on  the  ground  and  cramped  and  small  at 
the  hoof-head  has  too  much  flare  of  the  wall  to  provide  strength, 
and  is  not  a  good  foot.  The  sole  should  be  concave,  as  this 
means  strength.  Flatness  of  sole  is  a  common  fault  among  draft 
horses.  The  bars  should  be  strong,  to  insure  against  contraction 
of  the  heels,  and  the  frog  should  be  large  and  elastic.  The  heels 
should  be  very  wide  and  fairly  high,  and  the  fore  feet  should  be 
symmetrically  made  and  uniform  in  size  and  shape.  The  position 
of  the  feet  and  legs  should  be  as  described  in  Chapter  XXVIII. 

Ribs. — The  ribs  should  be  well  sprung  and  deep,  giving 
a  wide,  deep  body.  Such  a  conformation  provides  a  strong 
middle-piece,  gives  the  necessary  weight  to  the  animal,  and 
indicates  good  digestive  capacity,  as  well  as  ample  room  for 
heart  and  lungs.  The  distance  from  the  last  rib  to  the  hip 
should  be  short,  and  the  flank  should  be  deep.  Horsemen 
speak  of  a  deep,  full  flank  as  a  "good  bread  basket,"  and  in 
certain  sections  of  the  country  where  a  business  is  made  of 
feeding  drafters  for  market,  care  is  taken  to  select  animals  for 
feeding  that  have  deep,  full  middles,  for  the  other  kind  are  poor 
feeders  and  cannot  easily  be  made  fat.  The  horse  that  is  cut 
up  high  in  the  flank  is  said  to  be  "wasp-waisted,"  "tucked-up," 
or  "washy."  When  put  to  work,  such  horses  show  lack  of  en- 
durance or  stamina,  for  they  do  not  consume  enough  feed  to 
replace  the  energy  expended  in  doing  hard  labor;  hence  they 
become  very  thin  in  flesh,  and  are  unable  to  do  hard  work  for 
many  days  in  succession.  The  middle  of  the  draft  horse  in  good 
flesh  should  be  very  large,  and  as  round  as  a  dollar. 

Back. — The  back  forms  the  connection  between  the  power, 
which  is  in  the  hindquarters,  and  the  point  of  application  of  this 
power,  which  is  the  shoulder.  A  short,  rather  straight,  broad 
back  that  is  heavily  muscled  affords  the  strongest  conformation. 
A  short,  wide  back  is  not  only  more  rigid  than  a  long,  narrow 
one,  but  also  brings  the  power  closer  to  the  collar;  it  is  therefore 
much  desired  because  of  its  mechanical  advantage  over  the  long, 
rangy  conformation. 

Loin.— The  loin  is  usually  called  the  "coupling."  It  lies 
just  in  front  of  the  hips,  and  includes  those  vertebrae  which 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        393 

have  no  ribs  below  them.    The  loin,  like  the  back,  should  be 
short,  broad,  and  heavily  muscled. 

Hips. — Beginning  with  the  hips  and  continuing  through- 
out the  hindquarters,  we  are  dealing  with  the  location  of  those 
muscles  which  furnish  power  for  draft,  hence  we  want  an  ap- 
pearance of  great  massiveness  everywhere.  It  used  to  be  thought 
that  the  draft  horse  did  his  work  simply  by  falling  against  the 
collar,  thus  bringing  his  weight  to  bear,  and  consequently  that 
his  forequarters  ought  to  be  as  heavy  as  possible;  it  was  no 
harm  if  his  shoulders  were  straight,  and  as  for  his  hindquarters, 
it  did  not  matter  much  what  they  were.  But  this  idea  has 
been  exploded  and  it  is  now  known  that  he  pulls  by  muscle 
more  than  by  weight,  and  much  more  by  the  muscles  of -his 
hindquarters  than  by  those  of  his  forequarters.  So  we  want 
the  hips  of  the  drafter  to  be  wide  and  heavily  muscled,  yet 
smooth. 

Croup. — A  very  broad  and  long  croup  gives  the  greatest 
area  for  the  laying  on  of  muscle.  It  should  also  be  fairly  level 
from  hips  to  setting  on  of  tail.  A  steep  croup  not  only  de- 
tracts from  the  appearance,  but  is  also  usually  associated  with 
shortness  of  croup,  weakness  of  coupling,  and  crooked  hind 
legs.  The  croup  should  be  covered  with  heavy,  massive  muscles. 

Tail. — The  tail  should  be  attached  high,  and  should  be 
full  haired  and  well  carried. 

Thighs. — The  thighs  should  be  very  wide  and  should  bulge 
with  muscle,  and  the  quarters  should  be  very  deep  and  heavy. 
The  stifle  should  likewise  be  heavily  muscled,  and  there  should 
be  great  width  through  the  hindquarters  from  stifle  to  stifle. 
Viewed  from  the  side,  the  thigh  should  be  very  wide  from  stifle 
to  end  of  body. 

Gaskins. — The  gaskins,  like  the  forearms,  should  be  very 
wide  and  bulging  with  muscle. 

Hocks. — Suppose  we  have  a  pair  of  ton  horses  hitched  to 
a  big  load.  When  the  word  is  given  to  start,  the  horses  extend 
and  lower  their  heads,  lean  against  the  collar,  crouch  down  be- 
hind by  bringing  their  hind  feet  forward  and  flexing  their  hocks, 
and  then  the  pull  of  the  powerful  muscles  of  the  hindquarters 
extends  the  hock  joint  and  straightens  the  hind  leg,  thus  bring- 
ing great  pressure  against  the  collar,  and  the  load  moves.  The 
point  to  be  remembered  is  that  an  enormous  strain  comes  upon 
the  hock,  and  if  there  is  any  weakness  in  that  joint  it  is  certain 
to  cause  trouble.  The  hock  must  be  large,  clean,  wide  both 


394         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

ways,  and  deep,  and  the  point  of  the  hock  should  be  prominent. 
It  should  be  straight  from  top  to  bottom.  Hocks  that  are  badly 
sickled,  bowed  outward,  or  cow  hocked  are  not  stout  enough  to 
match  the  strength  of  the  muscles  above.  They  thus  limit 
the  power  of  the  horse  and  are  likely  to  become  unsound.  Fleshi- 
ness and  puffs  are  distinctly  objectionable.  Thick,  meaty  hocks 
are  too  common  in  draft  horses.  A  clean  appearance,  so  that 
every  angle  and  line  of  the  joint  is  apparent,  is  very  much  de- 
sired. 

Cannons,  pasterns,  and  feet. — The  requirements  for  hind 
cannons,  pasterns,  and  feet  are  almost  identical  with  those  in 
front.  However,  the  hind  cannons  are  always  longer  and  usually 
broader  than  the  front  ones.  Also,  the  hind  pasterns  are  seldom 
so  sloping,  and  the  hind  feet  are  not  quite  so  large  or  round. 
There  is  less  concussion  behind  than  in  front,  but  the  stress  is 
much  greater  at  the  pull,  hence  it  is  proper  that  hind  pasterns 
and  feet  be  a  little  more  erect,  in  order  to  provide  the  necessary 
strength  of  conformation. 

From  what  has  been  said  above,  the  value  of  a  properly  set 
hind  leg,  as  viewed  from  behind,  is  emphasized.  If  the  horse 
is  "bow  legged,"  his  legs  will  prove  weak  when  the  strain  is 
put  upon  them.  Walking  on  a  crooked  hind  leg  is  comparable 
to  driving  a  bent  nail.  The  force  of  the  hammer  bends  the  nail 
instead  of  driving  it  into  the  wood,  and  a  crooked  hind  leg  bows 
outward  instead  of  remaining  rigid  and  transmitting  full  force 
against  the  collar. 

Symmetry. — Now  that  the  details  of  the  drafter's  con- 
formation have  been  described,  a  word  may  be  added  regarding 
symmetry  or  proportionment  of  parts.  The  fact  is  that  some 
horses  are  good  in  their  various  parts,  yet  fail  to  present  a  good 
appearance.  What  they  lack  is  symmetry.  The  head  may 
be  good,  and  the  neck  may  be  good  also,  but  the  two  may  be 
joined  at  an  angle  which  injures  the  appearance.  The  neck 
may  not  rise  from  the  shoulders  as  it  should.  The  feet  may 
be  good,  but  may  be  too  small  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  size 
and  weight  of  the  animal.  The  top  line  from  head  to  tail  may 
be  an  irregular  line  full  of  angles,  whereas  it  should  be  gracefully 
curved.  The  hips  may  be  wide,  which  is  desirable,  yet  they 
should  not  be  wide  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  body, 
so  as  to  be  ragged  and  prominent.  Seemingly  small  factors 
such  as  these  may  or  may  not  affect  the  horse's  usefulness  for 
work,  but  frequently  they  constitute  the  difference  between  a 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         395 

plain  animal  and  one  of  show-yard  character,  between  which 
there  is  a  great  difference  in  price.  One  horse  looks  as  though 
he  were  made  up  of  a  lot  of  different-sized  parts  which  do  not 
fit  well  together,  while  the  other  seems  cast  from  a  carefully 
prepared  mould.  Standing  in  natural  position,  the  symmetrical 
horse  carries  his  head  and  neck  well  up,  so  that  the  face  line, 
shoulder,  and  pastern  all  slope  at  nearly  the  same  angle;  the 
croup  is  fairly  level  from  hips  to  tail,  the  tail  is  set  high,  and  all 
parts  of  his  conformation  are  so  proportioned  as  to  give  him  a 
well-balanced  appearance. 

On  the  matter  of  type. — To  present  the  best  appearance, 
the  drafter  should  not  be  over-drafty  in  type;  that  is,  shortness 
of  leg  and  compactness  and  width  of  body  should  not  be  carried 


Fig.  127.     Heavy  Drafters  in  Harness. 

This  is  the  famous  team  of  grays  which  was  invincible  at  the  leading 
shows  a  few  years  ago.  They  were  shown  in  both  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain.  Big  Jim  was  the  near  wheeler  in  this  team.  Owned  by  Ar- 
mour &  Company  of  Chicago. 

to  the  extreme.  This  type  of  horse  is  sometimes  referred  to 
as  the  "Poland-China  drafter/'  A  certain  degree  of  length  of 
leg,  length  of  neck,  and  length  of  underline  is  necessary,  not 
only  for  the  sake  of  looks,  but  also  because  it  actually  makes 
the  horse  more  useful.  He  takes  a  longer  step,  and  will  do 
more  work  in  a  day  than  the  extremely  pudgy  type  of  horse. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  certainly  do  not  want  a  horse  that  is 
all  length  and  style.  We  must  aim  at  the  middle  ground,  select- 
ing for  as  much  style  as  may  be  had  without  sacrifice  of  any 
of  those  qualities  which  make  the  draft  horse  useful  for  his  work. 


396         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Action. — The  action  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  true, 
snappy,  and  bold.  As  you  see  him  going  or  coming,  the  move- 
ment of  the  legs  should  be  straight  in  the  line  of  motion,  the 
feet  being  carried  true,  with  no  paddling  or  irregularity  of  gait. 
Walking  away  from  you,  he  should  move  with  enough  snap  to 
give  you  the  flash  of  his  shoe  at  every  step.  As  you  view  him 
in  action  from  the  side,  he  should  show  length  of  stride  and 
enough  height  of  action  to  clear  the  ground  safely  at  each  step. 
High  knee  action  is  not  essential;  in  fact,  carriage  horse  action 
in  a  draft  horse  means  useless  expenditure  of  energy.  However, 
there  should  be  a  strong,  free  movement  of  knees  and  hocks, 
without  dragging  or  stiffness.  The  walk  is  the  real  gait  of  the 
draft  horse,  and  an  active,  snappy,  springy  walk,  with  trueness 
and  length  of  stride,  is  the  prime  essential  so  far  as  action  is 
concerned.  However,  the  trot  often  magnifies  defects  in  gait 
so  that  they  are  more  easily  seen,  and  in  show  and  sale  rings 
drafters  are  shown  at  both  gaits.  The  stride  in  the  trot  should 
be  long,  true,  springy,  steady,  and  business-like,  with  a  certain 
degree  of  height  of  action  to  insure  against  stumbling.  Horse- 
men .like  a  bold  way  of  going  that  indicates  willingness  and 
courage  in  the  horse. 

In  action,  the  hocks  should  pass  close  together,  so  close  in 
fact  that  they  nearly  brush  each  other.  Some  horses  go  so  wide 
behind  that  a  wheelbarrow  could  be  put  between  the  hind  legs 
and  scarcely  touch  them.  Any  tendency  to  spraddle  behind 
is  one  of  the  greatest,  if  not  the  greatest,  defect  which  the  drafter 
can  exhibit,  so  far  as  action  is  concerned. 

The  study  of  action  is  one  requiring  close  attention.  The 
observer  must  take  into  consideration  every  movement  of  the 
horse.  Attention  must  be  given  not  only  to  the  movement  of 
the  feet  and  legs,  but  also  to  the  carriage  of  the  head  and  neck 
and  the  entire  body.  The  head  should  be  carried  well  up,  giv- 
ing a  stylish  appearance  and  a  good  outlook,  and  the  top  of  the 
horse  should  be  carried  level  and  true,  without  any  rolling  or 
wobbling  motion  from  side  to  side,  and  without  any  indication 
of  lameness.  The  front  and  hindquarters  should  act  in  unison, 
and  the  legs  should  be  kept  well  under  the  body  as  the  horse 
travels,  showing  no  tendency  to  drag  the  hind  legs,  and  especially 
the  hocks,  out  behind  the  body.  When  kept  up  underneath  as 
they  should  be,  and  when  all  the  motions  of  the  horse  are  in 
unison,  we  say  that  he  moves  in  a  collected  manner.  As  before 
stated,  perfection  in  action  can  result  only  when  there  is  a  com- 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        397 

.bination  of  proper  conformation  and  strength,  and  a  willing 
disposition. 

Common  defects  in  the  action  of  draft  horses  are  (1)  going 
wide  at  the  hocks,  (2)  swinging  the  fore  legs  outward,  called 
"paddling,"  (3)  swinging  in,  (4)  striking  supporting  leg  with 
foot  of  striding  leg,  called  "interfering,"  (5)  twisting  striding 
leg  around  in  front  of  supporting  leg,  called  "winding,"  "plait- 
ing," or  "rope  walking,"  (6)  short,  stubby  stride,  (7)  low,  skim- 
ming action,  called  "daisy  cutting,"  (8)  unsteadiness  of  gait, 
(9)  striking  sole  or  heels  of  fore  foot  with  toe  of  hind  foot,  called 
"forging,"  (10)  excessive  lateral  shoulder  motion,  called  "roll- 
ing," (11)  lack  of  energy  or  snap,  and  (12)  lameness. 

Color. — It  is  commonly  said  that  a  good  horse  cannot  have 
a  bad  color.  By  this  is  meant  that  color"  is  disregarded  if  the 
horse  suits  otherwise.  Some  colors,  however,  are  very  generally 
disliked,  and  still  other  colors  are  not  liked  by  some  persons. 
For  instance,  duns,  flea-bitten  grays,  white  horses,  very  light 
grays,  and  spotted  horses  are  universally  discounted,  either 
because  they  are  hard  to  groom,  hard  to  match,  or  because  the 
color  is  unsightly.  Dark  colors,  such  as  dark  or  steel  gray, 
dark  dappled  gray,  dark  bay,  dark  brown,  dark  chestnut,  dark 
roan,  and  black,  are  given  preference.  Dark  dappled  grays  are 
well  liked  by  buyers,  and  some  firms  will  accept  no  other  color 
because  the  flash  gray  color  attracts  attention  to  their  turnouts. 
It  is  not  uncommon  for  business  houses  to  adopt  some  color  as 
a  sort  of  trademark,  on  account  of  the  advertising  value.  How- 
ever, color  is  of  less  importance  in  draft  horses  than  in  any  other 
type.  This  is  true  because  the  drafter  is  a  business  horse,  whereas 
other  types  are  valued  mostly  for  pleasure  purposes. 

Finish.— The  term  "finish"  refers  to  fatness  and  to  the 
condition  of  the  coat.  The  horse  market  discriminates  in  price 
to  a  considerable  degree  between  the  fat  drafter  and  the  thin 
one,  and  it  is  surprising  what  an  improvement  is  made  in  some 
horses  by  the  addition  of  fat.  Fatness  adds  to  the  weight, 
improves  the  form  and  spirit,  and  provides  the  necessary  reserve 
store  of  energy  to  carry  the  horse  through  the  first  few  weeks 
in  the  city  during  adjustment  to  city  sights,  sounds,  loads,  pave- 
ments, stables,  and  other  new  conditions.  Although  fat  is  impor- 
tant in  the  horse  for  sale  or  show,  the  judge  must  learn  to  distinguish 
between  fat  and  muscle,  and  must  not  be  deceived  as  to  size  of  mid- 
dle, spring  or  rib,  or  length  of  back  and  croup.  The  coat  should 
be  well  groomed,  so  as  to  give  the  animal  a  sleek  appearance. 


398         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Fig.  128.     Before  and  After  Fattening. 

A  gelding  fattened  by  Mr.  B.  E.  Carmichael  of  the  Ohio  Experiment 
Station.  Fattening  shortened  the  back,  filled  out  the  coupling,  smoothed 
the  hips,  lengthened  and  levelled  the  croup,  rounded  out  the  middle,  gave 
crest  to  the  neck,  transformed  his  angular  lines  into  pleasing  curves,  and 
changed  his  worried  expression  of  eye  and  ear  to  one  of  contentment,  alertness, 
and  spirit.  The  feet  and  legs,  however,  are  not  improved  during  the  fattening 
period. 

It  might  be  assumed  from  these  pictures  that  fat  will  transform  the  head, 
neck,  and  entire  top  of  a  horse  from  inferior  to  excellent.  However,  when 
fat  this  gelding  does  not  have  the  big  middle  which  a  fat  horse  should  have, 
neither  does  he  show  just  the  right  lines  and  proportions.  It  is  difficult  to 
recognize  the  merits  of  a  thin  animal,  and  it  is  almost  as  difficult  to  see  the 
faults  of  a  fat  one.  The  above  pictures  strikingly  illustrate  these  facts. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         399 

Weight  for  age. — Draft  horses  that  are  properly  fed  and 
cared  for  usually  reach  at  least  50  per  cent,  of  their  matured 
weight  at  12  months  of  age;  75  per  cent,  at  24  months;  85  per 
cent,  at  36  months;  95  per  cent,  at  48  months;  and  100  per  cent, 
at  60  months.  On  this  basis  the  horse  that  is  to  weigh  a  ton 
at  maturity  should  weigh  not  less  than  1000  pounds  at  12 
months,  1500  pounds  at  24  months,  1700  pounds  at  36  months, 
1900  pounds  at  48  months,  and  2000  pounds  at  60  months. 
These  are  general  averages.  Variations  will  occur  depending  on 
feed,  care,  breed,  sex,  and  individual.  Belgians  and  Percherons 
mature  somewhat  earlier  than  Shires  and  Clydesdales.  Mares 
and  geldings  mature  quicker  than  stallions,  but  do  not  as  a  rule 
make  as  heavy  weights  at  maturity.  Some  highly-fed  colts  and 
fillies  make  the  weights  mentioned  at  12  and  24  months  and 
then  stop  growing  so  soon  that  they  fall  considerably  below  a 
ton  at  maturity.  This  is  especially  true  of  yearlings  and  two- 
year-olds  that  have  a  compact,  low-set  form  and  finished  appear- 
ance like  a  mature  horse,  instead  of  the  growthy,  rugged  appear- 
ance characteristic  of  youngsters  that  ultimately  reach  real  draft 
horse  size  and  weight. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 
THE  CARRIAGE  OR  HEAVY-HARNESS  HORSE. 

The  modern  carriage  horse  is  almost  exclusively  a  pleasure 
horse.  His  name  implies  his  use.  He  is  put  before  "various 
kinds  of  pleasure  vehicles,  ranging  from  the  light  runabout  to 
the  heavy  coach.  Because  he  wears  heavy  leather,  in  contrast 


Fig.  129.     Carriage  or  Heavy-Harness  Type. 

Hackney  mare,  Queen  of  Diamonds,  imported  and  owned  by  the  Truman 
Pioneer  Stud  Farm,  Bushnell,  111. 

to  the  harness  worn  by  the  roadster,  he  is  also  called  the  heavy- 
harness  horse.  It  is  apparent  that  there  should  be  a  wide  range 
in  the  size  and  weight  of  carriage  horses,  in  order  to  meet  the 
widely  varying  demands  of  the  various  vehicles  and  uses  to 
which  this  horse  is  put.  In  other  respects,  all  carriage  horses 
are  very  nearly  alike. 

400 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        401 

The  value  of  the  carriage  horse  is  determined  by  (1)  beauty 
of  conformation,  (2)  action,  (3)  manners,  (4)  temperament, 
(5)  color,  (6)  endurance  and  durability. 

Beauty  of  conformation. — The  conformation  of  the  car- 
riage horse  must  show  beauty,  style,  symmetry,  and  finish. 
Being  a  pleasure  horse,  it  is  the  ability  not  only  to  do  certain 
work  which  determines  value,  but  to  do  this  work  gracefully, 
and  to  present,  while  standing  or  in  action,  a  picture  of  pleas- 
ing appearance.  Everything  is  sidetracked  for  appearance  in 
the  breeding  of  this  horse.  Attractiveness  of  form  is  not  re- 
stricted to  any  one  type  of  horse,  but  it  brings  the  highest  price 
when  found  in  the  carriage  horse.  The  value  of  the  drafter  is 
very  largely  measured  by  the  amount  of  work  he  can  do;  the 
value  of  the  light-harness  horse  is  largely  measured  by  his  speed ; 
the  value  of  the  saddle  horse  depends  not  only  upon  his  appear- 
ance, but  also  upon  his  knowledge  of  the  gaits  and  his  ability 
to  carry  his  rider  with  comfort  and  ease;  the  value  of  the  car- 
riage horse  depends  chiefly  upon  his  appearance  and  general 
attractiveness  of  form  and  action. 

Action. — Here  again,  beauty  is  the  thing  sought  at  the 
expense  of  other  qualities.  The  carriage  horse  must  not  only 
go  level,  true,  and  collected,  but  he  must  go  very  high — the 
higher  the  better.  With  this  end  in  view,  he  is  bred,  fed,  shod, 
trained,  bitted,  and  driven  with  a  view  to  securing  as  much 
height  of  action  as  possible — not  because  it  makes  him  more 
useful  for  his  work,  but  because  it  makes  him  more  pleasing 
to  look  upon.  A  certain  degree  of  height  of  action  is  necessary 
in  all  horses,  in  order  to  secure  length  of  stride  and  to  prevent 
stumbling;  such  action  signifies  freedom  of  movement  of  joints 
and  muscles,  and  indicates  willingness  and  spirit.  But  the 
carriage  horse  is  asked  to  go  higher  than  this,  even  though  it 
means  added  wear  and  tear  on  feet  and  legs,  and  a  great  amount 
of  energy  to  accomplish  the  result.  Beauty  is  given  first  con- 
sideration. 

Manners. — Working  in  crowded  streets,  where  driving 
requires  considerable  care,  it  is  easily  apparent  that,  with  proper 
conformation,  action,  and  durability,  the  carriage  horse  will 
not  furnish  real  pleasure  unless  he  has  manners.  Furthermore, 
if  he  fails  to  respond  to  commands,  possesses  a  strong  will  that 
rebels  at  these  commands,  or  fails  to  act  quickly,  his  lack  of 
manners  may  result  disastrously  to  the  occupants  of  the  carriage. 
He  must  be  so  thoroughly  trained  and  familiar  with  the  com- 


402 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


mands  of  his  driver  that  the  execution  of  whatever  is  asked 
will  be  done  involuntarily,  unhesitatingly,  and  instantly.  Every 
command  of  word,  whip,  or  rein  must  be  received  intelligently, 
and  intelligently  acted  upon  by  the  horse. 

Temperament. — The    sanguine    or    nervous    temperament 
is  the  one  desired  in  carriage  horses,  for  without  it  we  cannot 


Fig.  130.     The  Heavy-Harness  Type  in  Action. 

Hackney  pony,  Irvington  Model,  bred  and  owned  by  Mr.  W.  D.  Henry, 
Sewickley,  Pa. 

expect  that  degree  of  action  which  is  required,  nor  that  quick- 
ness of  response  to  commands  which  is  essential.  There  are 
other  types  of  horses  which  should  possess  the  sanguine  tem- 
perament to  even  a  greater  degree  than  the  heavy-harness  horse; 
these  are  the  speed  types,  the  trotter  and  the  runner. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        403 

Color. — With  the  possible  exception  of  the  saddle  horse, 
color  is  of  more  importance  in  heavy-harness  horses  than  in 
any  other  type.  The  dark  solid  colors  are  preferred,  as  being 
in  proper  accord  with  the  elegant  vehicles  drawn  by  this  horse. 
White  ankles  are  often  favored,  because  a  horse  so  marked  has 
his  action  emphasized  and  easily  seen.  Grays,  roans,  and  light 
colors  are  heavily  discounted  or  even  rejected,  except  for  certain 
special  restricted  uses,  such  as  sporting  tandems,  road  fours, 
or  cross-matched  pairs,  and  in  horses  for  ladies'  use,  even  the 
white  markings  are  discriminated  against.  True  elegance  and 
good  taste  are  wanted,  and  this  excludes  colors  that  are  flashy 
and  calculated  to  attract  undue  attention. 

Endurance  and  durability. — The  carriage  horse  is  required 
to  make  only  short  trips  at  a  moderate  pace.  Endurance  is 
not  so  essential,  therefore,  as  in  other  types.  However,  dura- 
bility, which  means  wearing  quality,  is  of  great  importance. 
Extremely  high  action  makes  necessary  the  best  of  feet  and  legs. 
Durability  is  almost  entirely  dependent  upon  the  amount  and 
quality  of  bone,  and  the  structure  and  texture  of  feet. 

We  may  make  a  final  summing  up  of  the  foregoing  points 
by  saying  that  the  carriage  horse  is  one  specially  fitted  to  work 
before  pleasure  vehicles,  over  short  distances,  at  a  moderate 
pace,  wearing  heavy  leather;  and  that  to  be  in  keeping  with 
the  handsome  vehicles  which  he  moves,  he  must  show  beauty 
and  attractiveness  of  form  and  action  that  will  add  to,  rather 
than  detract  from,  the  appearance  of  the  turnout. 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TYPE. 

General  appearance. — Compactness  and  fullness  of  form 
are  required,  in  order  that  the  horse  may  fill  his  harness  prop- 
erly and  be  in  proper  keeping  with  the  vehicles  before  which 
he  is  put.  He  must  possess  great  smoothness  of  conformation, 
with  all  his  lines  curving  rather  than  angular.  He  must  appear 
snugly  put  together.  Although  it  is  not  desired  that  he  stand 
on  very  short  legs,  it  is  essential  that  he  be  not  leggy,  or  what 
is  termed  "weedy,"  in  appearance.  Medium  length  of  leg  is 
required,  to  give  proper  action  and  lend  him  style  and  sym- 
metry. The  height  ranges  from  14  to  16-1  hands,  and  the  weight 
from  900  to  1,300  pounds.  As  previously  stated,  size  and  weight 
are  of  rather  minor  importance.  However,  big  horses  that  are 
good  ones  are  harder  to  find  than  smaller  ones,  hence  size  is  of 
some  importance,  especially  in  breeding  animals.  The  greatest 


404         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

demand  is  for  horses  standing  from  15  to  16  hands.  Quality 
is  indicated  in  bone,  joints,  hoofs,  hair,  head,  and  smoothness 
of  form.  As  the  subject  of  quality  has  been  fully  discussed  in 
connection  with  draft  horse  type,  lengthy  description  is  un- 
necessary here.  Quality  is  valuable  in  the  carriage  horse  because 
it  assures  durability,  and  because  refinement  and  smoothness 
add  beauty  to  the  horse. 

Head. — The  head  should  be  refined  and  well  proportioned 
with  every  feature  sharply  defined.  The  forehead  should  be 
broad,  and  the  eyes  should  be  large  and  prominent.  Strong 


Fig.  131.     The  Carriage  Horse  in  Harness. 

Compare  this  picture  with  Fig.  134,  and  note  the  difference  in  height  of 
action,  type  of  vehicle,  and  weight  of  harness.  This  is  the  noted  Hackney 
mare,  Bountiful,  owned  by  Judge  W.  H.  Moore  of  Chicago. 

jaws  and  a  wide  muzzle  are  desired,  yet  the  muzzle  must  be 
trim,  the  lips  thin,  and  the  entire  head  free  from  any  appearance 
of  coarseness.  The  nostrils  should  be  large.  The  ears  should  be 
fine  and  placed  close  together  near  the  poll,  turning  in  slightly 
at  the  tips.  The  attachment  with  the  neck  must  be  clean  and 
graceful.  The  appearance  of  the  head  should  indicate  intelli- 
gence, alertness,  and  quality. 

Neck. — Length   of  neck  is  very  essential.     It  should   be 
gracefully  arched  and  bear  considerable  muscle, — enough  muscle 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        405 

to  lend  fullness  and  strength,  but  not  so  much  as  to  give  an 
appearance  of  heaviness  or  coarseness.  The  upper  border  of 
the  neck  should  be  fine  along  its  entire  length.  Ewe  necks  are 
very  unattractive  and  undesirable.  The  neck  should  blend 
nicely  with  the  shoulders.  The  shape  and  carriage  of  the  head 
and  neck  have  much  to  do  with  making  the  animal  a  real  car- 
riage horse,  or  a  plain,  inferior  sort.  Without  a  high-class 
front,  no  horse  can  qualify  as  a  heavy-harness  horse  of  superior 
type. 

Shoulders. — Long,  snugly  laid  shoulders,  that  have  a  de- 
cided slope  and  are  well  muscled,  are  wanted.  The  withers 
should  be  well  set  up  and  should  show  refinement. 

Chest. — The  chest  should  be  moderately  wide  and  very 
deep.  The  breast  should  be  carried  out  prominently,  and  be 
rather  muscular. 

Middle. — The  middle  of  the  horse  should  be  round,  full 
made,  short  on  top,  and  long  below.  This  calls  for  long,  well- 
arched  ribs.  The  back,  and  especially  the  loin,  should  be  thickly 
muscled  and  short,  giving  strength  and  a  smooth,  finished  ap- 
pearance. Depth  of  flank  is  essential,  for  the  sake  of  appear- 
ance and  keeping  qualities. 

Hips. — The  hips  should  be  smooth.  Prominent  hips  in 
the  carriage  horse  are  decidedly  faulty,  because  they  detract 
from  the  smoothness  of  form  which  is  so  much  desired. 

Croup. — A  long,  level,  fairly  broad,  well-muscled,  and  smooth- 
ly turned  croup  is  the  most  attractive  and  the  best  indication 
of  strength.  A  short,  steep  croup,  commonly  designated  a 
"goose  rump,"  is  very  objectionable.  The  tail  should  be  at- 
tached high  and  carried  out  from  the  quarters.  Carriage  horses 
usually  have  the  tail  docked  and  set. 

Thighs  and  quarters. — Full,  muscular  development  of 
thighs,  quarters,  and  gaskins  gives  the  desired  plumpness  of 
form  and  necessary  strength. 

Legs. — Superior  quality  of  bone,  associated  with  sub- 
stance, should  be  evident  in  the  cannons.  The  arm  should  be 
very  muscular.  The  forearm  should  be  muscular  and  long. 
The  knee  must  be  wide  both  ways,  deep,  and  flat  across  the 
front.  It  should  be  clearly  defined  in  all  its  lines,  which  means 
an  absence  of  meatiness.  The  hocks  should  be  wide  from  front 
to  rear,  broad  across  the  front  from  side  to  side,  and  deep  from 
top  to  bottom.  The  point  of  the  hock  should  be  prominent, 
and  the  rear  edge  of  the  joint  below  the  point  should  be  straight, 


406        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

or  very  slightly  incurving.  Roughness  or  coarseness  of  bone 
about  this  joint,  puffiness,  or  meatiness  are  looked  upon  with 
suspicion  as  indicating  weakness.  The  cannons,  both  front 
and  rear,  as  viewed  from  the  side,  should  be  broad  and  flat, 
with  the  grooves  between  the  cannon  bone  and  tendons  easily 
seen  and  felt.  The  broad,  flat  appearance  results  when  the 
tendons  are  placed  well  back  from  the  bone,  and  when  the  legs 
are  free  from  meatiness.  Smooth,  hard,  flinty  bone  and  clean 
tendons  are  necessary.  Straight,  strong  fetlock  joints  are 
essential.  The  front  pasterns  should  slope  at  an  angle  of  about 
45  degrees,  and  be  long  enough  to  give  elasticity  of  stride,  yet 
show  sufficient  substance  to  insure  strength.  Proper  position 
of  the  legs  is  of  greater  importance  in  this  type  than  in  draft 
horses.  So  much  of  the  value  of  the  horse  depends  upon  action, 
and  so  much  of  action  depends  upon  proper  position  of  the  legs 
and  feet,  that  great  attention  should  be  given  to  this  point. 
The  legs  must  come  straight  down  and  the  toes  point  straight 
ahead,  to  insure  true  action. 

Feet. — The  size  of  the  foot  should  be  proportionate  to 
the  size  of  the  horse.  Roundness  and  size  of  hoof-head,  width 
at  the  heels,  and  height  at  both  heel  and  toe  are  important. 
The  discussion  regarding  the  sole,  bars,  frog,  denseness  of  horn, 
etc.,  as  given  in  .connection  with  draft  horse  type,  applies  here 
with  equal  force. 

Action. — The  requirements  of  action  in  the  carriage  horse 
are — (1)  trueness,  (2)  height,  (3)  length  of  stride,  (4)  collection, 
(5)  elasticity,  (6)  boldness  and  power,  (7)  gracefulness  of  move- 
ment, and  (8)  moderate  speed.  The  walk  must  be  snappy, 
quick,  and  business-like  to  a  marked  degree.  But  it  is  at  the 
trot  that  action  is  wholly  revealed.  The  flight  of  each  foot 
must  be  straight  and  true.  The  fore  foot  should  be  carried 
forward  and  high  up,  as  if  following  the  rim  of  a  rolling  wheel, 
and  the  stride  should  be  long.  The  foot  meets  the  ground 
easily  and  without  apparent  jar,  in  fact,  the  step  appears  elastic, 
and  the  meeting  with  the  ground  seems  to  send  the  foot  on 
again  as  though  it  were  made,  of  rubber.  The  foot,  pastern, 
cannon,  and  forearm  cannot  accomplish  this  alone.  There  must 
also  be  freedom  of  action  of  the  arm  and  shoulder.  Every 
movement  must  show  grace  and  style,  and  the  whole  attitude 
of  the  horse  should  be  one  of  combined  courage  and  power. 

Proper  folding  of  the  knee  meets  only  half  of  the  require- 
ment. Associated  with  this,  there  should  be  a  decided  flexing 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        407 

of  the  hock.  The  hind  foot  will  leave  the  ground  with  snap 
and  free  movement  of  pastern,  and  the  hock  will  be  carried, 
not  backward,  but  upward  toward  the  dock,  to  accomplish 
which  the  hock  must  be  flexed  very  decidedly.  If  the  action 
of  the  hind  leg  is  as  described,  the  hind  foot  clears  the  ground 
by  considerable  distance,  and  the  hocks  do  not  drag  out  behind 
the  horse.  Many  heavy-harness  horses  swing  the  hind  legs 
back  and  forth  with  but  slight  flexing  of  the  hocks.  Such  action 
has  a  straggling  appearance  that  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the 
high  and  collected  action  of  a  horse  possessing  proper  action. 


Fig.  132.     Sensational  Action. 

Little  Ruby,  a  Champion  Hackney  pony  stallion,  owned  in  England. 

There  should  also  be  unison  of  movement  between  fore  and 
hind  legs. 

As  pointed  out  in  the  description  of  the  draft  horse,  ex- 
cellence of  action  results  only  when  there  is  a  combination  of 
proper  conformation  of  body  and  legs,  correct  position  of  feet 
and  legs,  sufficient  muscle,  proper  temperament,  and  abundant 
spirit.  Action  is  so  valuable  in  the  heavy-harness  horse  that 
breeders  and  dealers  often  resort  to  artificial  means  to  secure 
it  in  horses  which  are  deficient  in  their  movement.  Heavy 


408         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

shoes  produce  height  of  action.  Stimulants  are  sometimes 
given  to  put  spirit  into  the  horse;  these  have  only  a  temporary 
effect,  and  when  used  at  all  are  mostly  used  with  show  horses. 
Short  chains  are  sometimes  fastened  to  the  feet  of  young  horses, 
to  teach  them  to  lift  their  feet  high.  Exercising  over  rough  or 
freshly  plowed  ground,  or  in  straw,  is  also  a  common  practice, 
to  induce  lifting  of  the  knees  and  hocks.  The  toe  is  allowed 
to  grow  out  long,  adding  weight  to  the  foot  and  requiring  more 
energy  on  the  part  of  the  horse  in  breaking  over  as  he  takes  a 
stride,  so  that  when  he  does  break  over,  the  extra  force  tends  to 
carry  the  foot  higher  and  farther  away.  Action  produced  by 
any  such  methods  as  these  is  known  as  artificial  action,  in  con- 
trast to  natural  action  bred  in  the  horse.  Artificial  action  is 
usually  discovered  without  difficulty.  The  practiced  eye  de- 
tects that  the  horse  is  not  doing  his  work  with  ease  and  pleasure. 
There  seems  to  be  a  straining  of  muscles,  a  "tied  up"  way  of 
going,  and  a  lack  of  steadiness  that  is  never  seen  in  the  natural 
actor.  Artificial  action  results  in  quick  tiring  of  the  horse;  it 
is  not  an  unusual  spectacle  to  see  such  horses  come  into  the 
show  ring  with  high  action  which  rapidly  disappears  until  the 
legs  drag,  if  the  horse  is  called  upon  to  do  much  work,  while  the 
natural  actor  goes  high  from  start  to  finish. 

On  the  other  hand,  no  matter  how  natural  it  may  be  for  a 
horse  to  go  high,  he  still  requires  proper  shoeing,  bitting,  train- 
ing, and  driving,  in  order  that  his  inherent  ability  may  be  de- 
veloped. Even  after  the  horse  is  "made,"  as  the  saying  goes, 
if  he  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  an  inexperienced  reinsman,  un- 
skilled in  driving  heavy-harness  horses,  the  result  will  be  an 
absolute  failure.  The  trained  carriage  horse  responds  superbly 
under  the  guidance  of  the  master  reinsman.  Given  proper  aids 
from  word,  whip,  and  rein,  the  horse  instinctively  responds 
with  the  best  performance  of  which  he  is  capable. 

Speed. — This  is  not  important  in  heavy-harness  horses; 
only  a  moderate  degree  of  speed  is  wanted. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 
THE   ROADSTER   OR   LIGHT-HARNESS   HORSE. 

The  roadster  or  light-harness  horse  is  distinctly  an  Ameri- 
can type,  or  strictly  speaking,  it  is  a  breed — the  American  Trot- 
ter or  Standardised.  The  light-harness  horse  is  a  pleasure  horse 
exclusively;  his  domain  includes  the  regular  race  tracks,  where 
he  is  used  for  professional  racing,  and  also  the  city  speedways 
and  snowpaths,  and  country  roadways,  where  amateur  racing 
and  road  driving 'are  indulged  in  by  men  who  admire  the  trot- 
ting horse  and  seek  recreation  in  the  open  air. 

The  light-harness  type  and  the  sport  of  harness  racing 
originated  in  and  about  Philadelphia  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  at  which  time  roads  were  improved  and 
made  suitable  for  pleasure  driving.  This  type  is  the  result  of 
Yankee  skill  and  genius  applied  to  horse  breeding.  The  Ameri- 
can Trotter  is  a  wonderful  production,  and  closely  rivals  the 
running  horse  in  point  of  speed.  Large  numbers  have  been 
exported  to  Europe,  especially  to  Russia,  Germany,  and  Austria, 
where  harness  racing  is  becoming  increasingly  popular. 

This  type  is  styled  "light-harness  type"  because,  on  both 
road  and  track,  the  horse  works  in  light-weight  harness  that 
is  quite  in  contrast  to  the  heavy  leather  worn  by  the  heavy- 
harness  horse.  The  harness  is  light  because  the  vehicles  to 
which  this  horse  is  put  are  very  light  in  weight.  In  professional 
racing,  the  bike  sulky  is  used,  which  weighs  from  27  to  35  pounds; 
in  matinee  racing,  the  vehicle  used  is  a  light  speed  wagon,  having 
four  wheels  but  of  the  same  general  construction  as  the  sulky, 
and  weighing  only  65  to  68  pounds.  On  the  road,  the  hitch 
is  to  a  light  wagon  weighing  about  175  pounds,  which  may  have 
a  top  much  like  the  common  piano-box  buggy.  For  snow  rac- 
ing, a  specially  constructed  speed  sleigh  is  used,  weighing  a 
little  less  than  100  pounds. 

The  extensive  use  of  the  light-harness  horse  in  professional 
racing  is  well  known,  and  there  has  also  been  a  large  demand 
for  this  horse  in  amateur  racing.  Many  Americans  have  de- 
rived great  pleasure  from  owning  and  driving  fast  trotters. 
Driving  clubs  have  been  organized  in  many  cities  and  towns  for 
the  conduct  of  matinee  racing  during  the  summer  and  fall,  and 

409 


410        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

sometimes  during  the  winter  months  as  well.  This  is  done 
purely  from  love  of  the  sport,  the  prizes  being  ribbons  and 
trophies,  and  not  purses  as  in  professional  racing.  Hundreds 
of  good  horses,  some  of  them  holders  of  world's  records,  have 
been  purchased  by  men  who  never  competed  for  cash  prizes; 
for  example,  Lou  Dillon,  The  Harvester,  and  Uhlan  were  owned 
by  Mr.  C.  K.  G.  Billings  who  never  raced  his  horses  for  money. 

The  value  of  the  light-harness  horse  is  based  upon  (1)  speed, 
(2)  stamina  or  endurance,  (3)  durability,  and  (4)  beauty  of 
conformation. 

Speed. — Whether  in  use  on  or  off  the  track,  the  light-harness 
horse  is  prized  very  largely  for  his  speed.  For  racing  purposes, 
he  is  required  to  show  2:30  speed  at  the  trot,  or  2:25  at  the 
pace,  before  he  is  considered  a  light-harness  horse  in  the  true 
sense  of  the  word;  for  road  use  he  should  be  able  to  do  at  least 
ten  miles  within  an  hour.  A  light-harness  horse  without  speed 
is  as  useless  for  the  purpose  intended  as  a  drafter  without  size, 
or  a  carriage  horse  without  action  and  beauty.  The  ability  to 
"get  there"  is  the  thing  for  which  this  horse  is  bred  and  trained. 
The  world's  trotting  record  is  now  1 :58  (which  means  one  minute 
and  fifty-eight  seconds  for  the  mile)  and  is  held  by  Uhlan,  a 
gelding.  The  world's  pacing  record  is  1:55  J£,  held  by  the  stal- 
lion Dan  Patch.  The  world's  trotting  and  pacing  records*  and 
the  years  when  they  were  established  are  as  follows: 

Trotting 

1  mile Uhlan  (1912) 1:58 

2  miles The  Harvester  (1910) 4:15K 

3  miles Nightingale  (1893) 6:55^ 

4  miles Senator  L.  (1894) 10:12 

5  miles Zambra  (1902) 12:24 

10  miles Pascal  (1893) 26:15 

Stallion Lee  Axworthy  (1916) 1:58  J^ 

Mare Lou  Dillon  (1903) 1:58*4 

Gelding Uhlan  (1912) 1:58 

Yearling Airdale  (1912) 2:15% 

Two-year-old. The  Real  Lady  (1916) 2:04>£ 

Three-year-old The  Real  Lady  (1917) 2:03 

Four-year-old Peter  Volo  (1915) 2:02 

Five-year-old Lee  Axworthy  (1916) 1:58 & 

Under  saddle Country  Jay  (1909) 2:08^ 

Team Uhlan  and  Lewis  Forrest  (1912) 2:0334 


Horse  Review  Harness  Racing  Guide,  1918. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        411 

Pacing 

Imile..  ..Dan  Patch  (1905) 1:55^ 

2  miles Dan  Patch  (1903) 4:17 

3  miles Elastic  Pointer  (1909) 7:31^ 

4  miles Joe  Jefferson  (1891) 10:10 

Smiles Lady  St.  Glair  (1874) 12:54% 

Stallion Dan  Patch  (1905) 1:55  J^ 

Mare Miss  Harris  M.  (1917) 1:58  jj 

Gelding Frank  Bogash  Jr.  (1914) 1:59  & 

Yearling Frank  Perry  (1911) 2:15 

Two-year-old .- : Direct  the  Work  (1917) 2:06^ 

Three-year-old Anna  Bradford  (1914) 2:00% 

Four-year-old William  (1914) 2:00 

Five-year-old William  (1915) 1:58  ^ 

Under  saddle George  Gano  (1915) 2:10% 

Team Minor  Heir  and  George  Gano  (1912) .  2:02 

Stamina  or  endurance. — Most  racing,  both  amateur  and 
professional,  is  at  mile  heats  over  half-mile  or  mile  tracks.  Some 
races  are  two  in  three,  and  some  three  in  five,  heats.  Not  until 
some  horse  has  succeeded  in  winning  the  necessary  two  or  three 
heats  is  the  race  decided.  For  this  reason,  some  races  extend 
into  very  gruelling  contests.  Some  horses  show  a  wonderful 
burst  of  speed  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile  or  so,  and  then  quit.  These 
horses  are  said  to  "lack  bottom/7  by  which  is  meant  a  lack  of 
stamina  or  endurance.  Stamina  means  ability  to  go  a  mile  at 
speed,  and  to  repeat  the  mile,  two,  three,  or  more  times,  with 
intermissions  of  not  less  than  25  minutes.  To  accomplish  this 
requires  heart  and  lungs  of  the  first  order,  together  with  a  well- 
developed  muscular  system.  On  the  speedway  and  snowpath, 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  brush  racing,  that  is,  racing  over  short 
distances  of  varying  lengths,  depending  on  the  wishes  of  the 
drivers  and  the  ease  or  difficulty  in  passing  opponents.  This 
is  usually  not  so  severe  as  a  regular  racing  program,  provided 
the  horse  has  been  properly  conditioned  and  trained.  Horses 
which  have  more  stamina  than  speed  must  depend  on  their 
ability  to  wear  down  their  more  speedy  rivals,  in  order  to  win 
a  heat  or  race.  This  they  do  by  repeated  scoring  for  a  start, 
or  through  the  good  fortune  of  having  a  race  extended  out  to 
extra  heats — what  is  termed  a  split-heat  race.  Other  horses, 
with  more  speed  than  stamina,  must  be  driven  to  win  from  the 
start  of  the  race,  avoiding  unnecessary  scoring  and  endeavoring 
to  win  the  required  number  of  heats  in  short  order. 

Durability. — It  is  readily  apparent  that  the  work  required 
of  the  light-harness  horse  is  of  such  a  nature  as  demands  the 
best  of  feet  and  legs.  This  type  of  horse  has  a  decided  ad- 
vantage over  the  carriage  horse  and  drafter,  in  that  he  works 


412         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

on  a  much  more  yielding  footing,  yet  the  high  rate  of  speed  puts 
his  feet  and  legs  to  a  very  severe  test,  and  many  horses  with 
speed  and  stamina  have  their  usefulness  and  value  greatly  lessened 
because  of  failure  to  keep  sound  when  called  upon  to  go  through 
a  strenuous  racing  campaign  or  do  a  large  amount  of  work  on 
the  road.  Some  very  noted  horses  and  some  families  of  trotters 
have  been  notably  lacking  in  this  respect. 

Beauty  of  conformation  is  a  comparatively  small  factor 
in  determining  the  value  of  light-harness  horses  for  racing  pur- 
poses. Some  breeders  have  placed  considerable  emphasis  on 
the  matter  of  looks  and  attractiveness,  but  in  general  it  may 
be  said  that  beauty  in  the  light-harness  horse,  while  appreciated 
whenever  it  occurs,  has  not  been  fully  emphasized  by  breeders, 
because  they  have  been  catering  to  the  demand  of  the  race  track, 
and  that  demand  is  for  speed  above  everything  else.  In  select- 
ing roadsters  strictly  for  road  driving,  however,  speed  is  not 
so  important  as  endurance  and  the  ability  to  make  a  long  drive 
in  creditable  time,  and  for  this  work  a  horse  of  attractive,  finished 
appearance  is  highly  desirable.  A  big,  strong,  well-made  horse, 
with  quality,  a  well-carried  head  and  tail,  light  mouth,  good 
manners,  excellent  feet  and  legs,  and  a  long  stride,  is  the  sort 
best  suited  for  road  driving.  For  the  various  kinds  of  racing, 
however,  speed,  stamina,  and  durability  are  the  almost  ex- 
clusive requirements. 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TYPE. 

General  appearance. — There  is  considerable  variation  in 
the  general  appearance  of  the  light-harness  horse.  This  is  a 
result  of  breeding  for  speed  alone.  Speed  is  the  only  character- 
istic which  all  light-harness  horses  possess  with  reasonable  uni- 
formity. To  be  sure,  selection  and  breeding  for  speed  have 
resulted  in  fixing  a  sort  of  general  type  upon  this  horse.  Certain 
things  are  necessary  in  the  conformation  of  the  horse  to  enable 
him  to  go  fast.  Acknowledging  this,  there  is  yet  opportunity 
for  rather  wide  differences  in  appearance.  In  selecting  animals 
for  breeding  purposes,  the  basis  of  selection  has  been  speed 
almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other  qualities.  S.  W.  Parlin,  Editor 
of  the  American  Horse  Breeder,  has  written  the  following  on 
the  subject  of  breeding  trotters:  "When  choosing  between  two 
animals  for  breeding  purposes,  one  of  which  is  a  very  attractive 
animal,  but  known  to  be  lacking  in  inheritance  from  animals 
that  were  race  winners  at  some  gait,  and  a  less  attractive  one, 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


413 


that  has  a  rich  speed  inheritance  on  both  sides,  it  will  always 
be  safer  to  take  the  less  attractive  one  that  has  the  richer  in- 
heritance." 

The  above  outlined  practice,  while  correct  enough  in  breed- 
ing for  the  track,  is  responsible  for  the  wide  variation  in  appear- 
ance found  among  light-harness  horses.  A  few  breeders  have 
bred  for  beauty  and  speed  combined.  Mr.  C.  J.  Hamlin,  who 
during  his  lifetime  maintained  a  world-famous  breeding  and 


Fig.  133.     Roadster  or  Light-Harness  Type. 

Azoff,  2,  2:14^;  son  of  Peter  the  Great  2:07M  and  Dolly  Worthy  2:27^, 
by  Axworthy  2:153^.  Owned  at  Thompson  Farm,  Libertyville,  111.,  Hon. 
John  R.  Thompson,  Proprietor. 

training  plant  at  East  Aurora,  N.  Y.,  used  to  say — "When  you 
go  into  a  ball  room,  you  would  rather  choose  as  a  partner  a 
beautiful  woman  who  can  dance  well  than  a  homely  one  who 
can  dance  equally  well."  He  used  this  illustration  to  show 
his  attitude  in  the  production  of  the  roadster.  Mr.  Hamlin 
successfully  combined  speed  with  size,  soundness,  style,  and 
elegance  of  form. 


414        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

In  breeding  for  speed  alone,  certain  other  characters  are 
bound  to  be  impressed  also.  Speed  in  the  light-harness  horse 
is  associated  or  correlated  with  refinement,  endurance,  and 
courage.  Size,  symmetry,  and  beauty  are  not  correlated  with 
speed  except  in  the  most  general  way.  The  light-harness  horse 
varies  in  weight  from  800  to  1,250  pounds,  and  in  height  from 
14-2  to  16-1.  Weights  from  950  to  1,150  pounds  and  heights 
from  15  to  16  hands  are  most  common.  This  type  is  rather 
upstanding,  leggy,  long,  deep,  narrow,  and  angular.  Quality 
is  shown  by  clean,  smooth,  dense  bone;  sharply  defined  tendons 
and  joints;  fine  skin  and  hair;  small  ears;  fine-haired  mane  and 
tail;  hoofs  of  smooth,  dense  horn;  and  a  chiseled,  blooded-looking 
head.  The  temperament  must  be  decidedly  sanguine,  which 
brings  courage,  willingness,  and  promptness,  with  no  sluggish- 
ness. 

Head. — The  head  should  be  refined  and  well  proportioned, 
with  a  straight  face  line,  a  fine  muzzle,  large  nostrils,  and  thin, 
trim  lips.  The  eyes  should  be  large,  prominent,  clear,  and  bright. 
The  forehead  should  be  high,  broad,  and  full.  The  ears  should 
be  fine,  pointed,  set  close,  and  carried  alert. 

Neck. — A  long,  lean  neck,  with  a  fine  throttle,  is  desired. 
Ewe  necks  are  common.  A  straight  neck,  or  one  with  slight 
arch,  is  preferable. 

Shoulders. — Long,  smooth,  sloping  shoulders,  fitted  close 
together,  and  forming  high,  refined  withers  at  the  top,  are  most 
desirable. 

Middle. — A  deep  rib,  without  much  arch,  is  associated 
with  desirable  light-harness  type.  The  chest  gets  its  capacity 
from  depth,  rather  than  from  width.  A  straight,  medium- 
short,  well-muscled  back  and  loin  are  essential.  The  underline 
is  long,  and  the  flanks  should  be  well  let  down. 

Hips. — The  hips  should  be  fairly  wide,  yet  smooth.  This 
type  does  not  present  as  smooth  a  hip  as  the  carriage  horse.  A 
little  prominence  of  hip  is  not  very  objectionable,  but  if  this 
is  so  pronounced  as  to  give  a  rough  appearance  it  is  undesirable. 

Croup. — A  long,  level,  fairly  broad,  muscular  croup  is  best 
suited  to  this  type.  Defective  croups  are  common.  The  tail 
should  be  attached  high  and  well  carried. 

Thighs  and  quarters.— Long,  muscular  thighs  give  speed. 
Well-muscled  quarters  are  necessary  for  strength. 

Legs. — Length  of  leg  is  necessary  for  speed,  yet  there  should 
be  proper  proportion  between  length  of  leg  and  size  of  horse. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        415 

A  shallow  body  set  up  high  on  very  long  legs  is  not  a  good  type. 
Yet  it  is  just  as  essential  that  the  light-harness  horse  have  length 
of  leg  to  secure  speed,  as  it  is  that  the  draft  horse  have  a  short 
leg  to  secure  great  power.  However,  the  length  must  come  above 
the  knees  and  hocks  as  much  as  possible.  The  arm  should  be 
muscular,  an'd  carried  well  forward,  while  the  forearm  should 
be  long  and  muscular,  with  a  nice  tapering  to  the  knee.  This 
provides  room  for  the  long  muscles  associated  with  speed.  The 
knees  must  be  clean,  bony,  straight,  broad,  deep,  and  strongly 
supported.  The  cannons  should  be  broad ,  with  large,  clean 
tendons  set  well  back  from  the  bone.  Straight,  wide  fetlock 
joints  and  strong,  sloping  pasterns  of  good  length  are  very  nec- 
essary. The  fore  leg  must  be  straight,  and  the  toe  should  point 
directly  forward,  to  insure  trueness  of  action.  A  long,  muscular 
gaskin  is  an  important  requirement.  This  brings  the  hocks 
far  below  the  point  of  the  buttock,  which  is  essential  in  securing 
speed.  Clean  hocks  that  are  wide,  deep,  straight,  with  promi- 
nent point,  and  well  supported  below  are  very  necessary.  The 
hind  legs  must  be  set  straight,  with  the  toes  pointing  straight 
ahead.  Sickle-shaped  hind  legs  are  rather  too  common. 

Feet. — The  best  of  feet  are  necessary.  Although  this  type 
is  usually  afforded  an  easy  footing,  nevertheless  the  tremendous 
concussion  puts  the  feet  to  severe  strain  when  the  horse  travels 
at  speed.  At  high  speed,  a  stride  of  19  or  20  feet  is  attained. 
Imagine  the  force  of  the  concussion  when  a  1,000-pound  horse 
strides  20  feet  in  less  than  half  a  second,  as  is  the  case  when  the 
horse  is  trotting  at  a  two-minute  gait.  The  feet  should  be  well- 
developed,  uniform  in  size,  point  straight  forward,  and  slope 
at  the  same  angle  as  the  pastern.  The  horn  of  the  hoof  should 
be  dense  and  smooth,  the  sole  should  be  concave,  the  bars  strong, 
the  frog  large  and  elastic,  and  the  heel  wide  and  open. 

Gait. — Both  pacers  and  trotters  are  found  among  light- 
harness  horses.  These  gaits  differ  from  each  other  in  that  the 
pace  is  a  lateral  motion  in  'which  the  fore  and  hind  leg  of  the 
same  side  act  together,  while  the  trotter  moves  diagonally.  A 
change  of  a  few  ounces  in  the  weight  of  a  shoe  often  transforms 
the  gait.  Many  horses  hold  records  at  both  gaits.  The  pacing 
gait  is  about  three  seconds  faster  for  the  mile  than  the  trot, 
but  it  is  not  so  popular  with  horsemen  as  the  trotting  gait,  es- 
pecially for  road  driving.  With  the  pace  there  is  often  asso- 
ciated a  decided  rolling  of  the  body,  which  is  disliked,  the  pull 
on  the  vehicle  is  jerky,  and  the  pacer  does  not  work  well  in  the 


416         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

mud  or  where  the  going  is  heavy.  The  natural  pacer  also  fre- 
quently possesses  a  steep  croup,  short  underline,  and  sickle- 
shaped  hind  leg. 

Action. — The  walk  should  be  true,  quick,  elastic,  and  regular. 
The  trot,  in  order  to  be  fast  without  undue  tiring  of  the  horse, 
must  be  straight  and  true,  with  regular,  even,  long  stride.  Height 
of  action  is  of  little  importance;  in  fact,  the  less  knee  and  hock 
action  the  better.  It  is  only  important  that  the  foot  clear  the 
ground,  accompanied  by  enough  action  of  knee  and  hock  to 
secure  length  of  stride.  There  should  be  no  hitching  or  un- 
steadiness of  gait,  and  no  great  tendency  to  break  when  going 


Fig.  134.     The  Light-Harness  Horse  in  Action. 

The  Harvester,  2:01,  Ex-Champion  trotting  stallion,  driven  by  Mr.  Ed 
Geers.     Owned  by  Mr.  C.  K.  G.  Billings  of  New  York  City. 

at  speed.  The  action  should  be  what  is  sometimes  termed 
"frictionless,"  giving  one  the  impression  of  a  perfect  mechanism 
that  can  travel  at  greatest  speed  with  least  expenditure  of  energy. 
It  is  apparent  that  much  of  the  success  of  the  light-harness 
horse  depends  upon  good  action,  and  good  action,  in  turn,  is 
dependent  largely  upon  proper  position  of  the  legs.  Defects 
in  conformation  result  in  knee  knocking,  speedy  cutting,  over- 
reaching, and  other  faults  of  action. 

Common  defects  in  the  action  of  light-harness  horses  are 
(1)   swinging  the  fore  feet  inward,  instead  of  carrying  them 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        417 

straight  away,  (2)  a  stride  in  which  extension  is  more  marked 
than  flexion,  and  in  which  the  heel  of  the  foot  strikes  the  ground 
first,  called  "pointing/'  (3)  pause  in  flight  of  foot  before  foot 
reaches  ground,  called  "dwelling,"  (4)  striking  sole  or  heels  of 
fore  foot  with  toe  of  hind  foot,  called  "forging,"  (5)  striking 
supporting  leg  with  foot  of  striding  leg,  called  "interfering," 
(6)  hitting  front  of  hind  foot,  above  or  at  line  of  hair,  against 
toe  of  fore  foot  as  it  breaks  over,  called  "scalping,"  (7)  the  trot- 
ter at  speed  often  goes  rather  wide  behind,  and  he  sometimes 
strikes  his  hind  leg,  above  the  scalping  mark,  against  the  out- 
side of  the  breaking  over  fore  foot,  called  "speedy  cutting,"  and 
(8)  "cross-firing,"  a  fault  in  pacers  corresponding  to  forging  in 
trotters. 

Condition. — The  condition  of  the  light-harness  horse  is  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  types  previously  described.  When  in 
desirable  racing  condition,  there  seems  to  be  a  total  absence  of 
fat  from  the  muscles.  A  clean-cut,  sinewy  appearance  indicates 
proper  racing  trim.  For  hard  use  on  the  road,  a  fat  horse  is 
almost  equally  objectionable.  The  fat  horse  is  soft,  sweats  easily, 
and  tires  quickly.  However,  proper  condition  is  not  secured  by 
giving  short  rations.  The  roadster  should  be  well  fed,  and  kept 
in  proper  condition  by  lots  of  exercise. 

Color. — A  study  of  the  American  Trotting  Register,  which 
is  the  stud  book  in  which  Standardbred  horses  are  recorded, 
indicates  that  the  colors  per  thousand  horses  are  as  follows: — 
605  bays,  140  chestnuts,  130  browns,  85  blacks,  25  grays,  13  roans, 
and  2  duns.  The  first  four  colors — bay,  chestnut,  brown,  and 
black — are  liked  best.  Grays,  roans,  and  duns  are  not  so  popu- 
lar. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
THE  SADDLE  HORSE. 

Any  horse  used  for  riding  might  be  called  a  saddle  horse. 
But  there  is  a  certain  type  of  horse  best  suited  to  carrying  a 
man  in  safety  and  comfort,  and  this  is  the  type  to  bear  in  mind 
when  thinking  of  saddle  horses.  The  horse  of  all  pioneer  peoples 
is  the  saddler.  In  new  countries,  before  the  opening  of  roads, 
the  saddle  horse  is  of  greatest  usefulness.  When  the  country 
becomes  settled  and  roadways  are  opened  and  improved,  other 
types  of  horses  quickly  appear,  and  there  is  less  and  less  real 
necessity  for  the  saddle  horse;  but  the  saddler  never  disappears 
from  any  community,  because  he  is  highly  prized  as  a  horse  for 
pleasure  and  recreation. 

When  roads  were  being  opened  in  the  states  along  the  east- 
ern seaboard,  and  the  roadster  began  to  gain  popularity,  Ken- 
tucky, Missouri,  and  the  West  were  yet  a  country  of  bridle 
paths,  and  there  the  saddle  horse  was  held  in  high  esteem.  In 
1818,  a  traveller  through  the  Kentucky  blue-grass  region  reported 
that  "the  horse,  'noble  and  generous/  is  the  favorite  animal 
of  the  Kentuckian,  by  whom  he  is  pampered  with  unceasing 
attention.  Every  person  of  wealth  has  from  ten  to  thirty,  of 
good  size  and  condition,  upon  which  he  lavishes  his  corn  with 
a  wasteful  profusion."  Besides  Kentucky  and  Missouri,  the 
states  of  Virginia  and  Tennessee  have  been  intimately  con- 
nected with  saddle  horse  development  in  America.  These  four 
states  produce  many  excellent  saddle  animals  annually. 

Today,  saddle  horses  are  used  in  a  business  way  by  the 
cavalry  of  the  United  States  Army  and  National  Guard,  by  the 
mounted  police  of  the  larger  cities,  by  cattle  drovers  in  rural 
districts,  by  cattle  buyers  and  salesmen  at  the  large  live-stock 
markets,  by  ranchers  in  the  West,  and  by  overseers  and  man- 
agers of  large  plantations  and  farms  in  the  South,  East,  and 
Central  West.  However,  the  high  prices  for  saddle  horses  are 
paid  by  people  to  whom  the  saddler  is  a  pleasure  horse.  In 
city  parks  and  on  country  roads  are  to  be  seen  many  excellent 
saddle  horses,  used  strictly  for  pleasure  and  recreation. 

All  good  saddle  horses  possess  a  general  type  which  we 
may  call  "saddle  type/'  but  the  uses  made  of  saddle  horses  are 

418 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        419 

so  varied  that  several  varieties  or  sub-types  of  the  saddle  horse 
exist,  each  possessing  a  distinct  type  of  its  own.  The  most 
important  of  these  sub-types  are  (1)  the  five-gaited  saddler, 
(2)  the  three-gaited  horse,  (3)  the  hunter,  and  (4)  the  polo  pony. 
All  of  these  are  pleasure  horses.  The  running  horse  or  race 
horse,  the  cavalry  horse,  and  the  western  cow  pony  are  other 
sub-types  adapted  to  certain  special  uses,  but  the  following 
discussion  is  confined  to  the  four  first  mentioned.  A  brief 
description  of  the  cavalry  horse  will  be  found  in  the  chapter 
dealing  with  market  classes  of  horses. 

The  Five-Gaited  Saddle  Horse. 

The  five-gaited  saddle  horse  is  also  known  as  the  Ameri- 
can Saddle  Horse,  this  being  the  name  of  the  breed  which  sup- 
plies practically  all  horses  of  the  gaited  class.  To  classify  as  a 
five-gaited  horse,  the  saddler  must  have  at  least  five  gaits,  four 
of  which  must  be  the  walk,  trot,  canter,  and  rack;  in  addition 
to  these  four,  the  horse  must  have  one  or  more  of  three  slow 
gaits — the  running  walk,  fox  trot,  and  slow  pace.  The  gaited 
saddler  is  the  horse  that  has  made  Kentucky  and  Missouri 
famous.  In  his  native  home  he  is  looked  upon  with  great  ad- 
miration, and  bred  and  trained  with  great  care. 

General  appearance. — The  gaited  horse  wears  a  natural 
mane  and  tail,  in  contrast  to  the  other  types  of  saddle  horses. 
The  breeders  of  this  type  lay  stress  upon  loftiness  of  carriage, 
airiness  of  movement,  refinement,  intelligence,  docility  with 
high  spirit  and  courage, — withal,  great  beauty  in  every  detail 
of  conformation,  without  any  sacrifice  of  those  qualities  which 
insure  durability  and  creditable  performance  of  the  work  de- 
manded of  a  saddle  horse.  A  leading  Kentucky  breeder  pre- 
sents the  points  of  the  typical  five-gaited  saddle  horse  in  the 
following  brief  paragraph*:— 

"The  typical  saddle  horse  does  not  differ  materially  from 
other  light  horses  in  conformation.  The  characteristics  peculiar 
to  the  type  are  a  long,  clean  neck,  sloping  pasterns  and  shoul- 
ders, withers  moderately  high  and  narrow,  a  short  and  compactly 
coupled  back,  smoothly  turned  quarters,  and  a  well-set,  high- 
carried  tail.  In  action  there  should  be  promptness,  ease,  and 
precision  in  going  from  gait  to  gait,  and  absolute  straightness 
and  evenness  in  each.  The  rack  should  be  smooth,  swift,  and 


*Bit  &  Spur,  September,  1912,  p.  22. 


420 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


without  side  motion  of  the  body  or  legs,  the  trot  should  be  fast 
and  without  offensive  flashiness,  the  canter  should  be  slow  with 
no  increasing  speed,  the  flat-footed  walk  should  be  springy  and 
reasonably  fast,  while  the  running  walk,  or  fox  trot,  should  be 
easy  and  comfortable  and  equal  to  about  five  miles  an  hour." 

Gaits. — In  a  wild  state  the  natural  gaits  of  the  horse  were 
four  in  number — the  walk,  trot,  pace,  and  gallop  or  run.  Under 
domestication  these  gaits  have  been  variously  modified  and  addi- 
tions made  for  saddle  purposes.  These  additions  and  modifica- 
tions are  largely  the  result  of  the  selection  for  breeding  purposes 


Fig.  135.     Five-Gaited  Saddle  Horse. 

The  noted  prize- winning  stallion,  Kentucky's  Choice.     Owned  by  Mrs. 
R.  Tasker  Lowndes,  Danville,  Ky. 

of  those  animals  most  readily  acquiring  the  desired  gaits  when 
trained  to  them.  The  gaits  desired  in  the  five-gaited  type  of 
saddle  horse  are  as  follows: 

Walk. — The  flat-footed  walk  should  be  springy,  regular, 
and  reasonably  fast. 

Trot. — This  is  a  diagonal  gait,  the  off  fore  foot  and  near 
hind  foot  striking  the  ground  together,  the  body  being  then 
propelled  forward  from  this  support  and  sustained  by  the  near 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         421 

fore  foot  and  off  hind  foot.  It  is  a  "two-beat"  gait.  The  trot 
should  be  fast,  with  only  moderate  height  of  action,  extreme 
knee  action  being  undesirable.  Many  otherwise  excellent  saddle 
horses  cannot  trot  well,  "pointing"  and  coming  down  on  their 
heels,  instead  of  exhibiting  a  well-balanced  trot. 

Canter. — The  canter  is  a  restrained  gallop.  It  is  slower 
than  the  gallop  and  easier  to  ride.  With  proper  training,  the 
horse  easily  acquires  this  gait.  It  should  be  slow,  with  no  in- 


Fig.  136.     The  Saddle  Horse  in  Action 

Edna  May,  undefeated  five-gaited  mare,  ridden  by  Mr.  Mat  S.  Cohen, 
Lexington,  Ky.  Owned  by  Mrs.  R.  Tasker  Lowndes,  Danville,  Ky.  This 
picture  shows  correct  degree  of  knee  and  hock  action  and  proper  carriage 
of  head  and  tail. 

creasing  speed.  The  canter  is  not  considered  perfect  until  the 
horse  can  perform  it  at  a  rate  no  faster  than  a  fast  walk.  To 
"canter  all  day  in  the  shade  of  an  apple  tree"  is  a  saying  some- 
times used  to  describe  the  canter  of  a  highly  trained  saddler 
that  can  canter  very  slowly  and  in  a  small  circle.  A  well-trained 
horse  will  change  lead  in  the  canter,  and  start  with  either  foot 
*-  ing,  at  the  will  of  the  rider. 


422         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Rack. — -This  is  a  four-beat  gait,  each  foot  meeting  the 
ground  singly,  all  the  intervals  being  equal.  Hence  it  is  some- 
times called  "single  foot."  This  gait  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  ear  alone,  because  the  foot-falls  are  rapid  enough  to 
produce  a  characteristic  clatter.  The  rack  is  taught  by  urging 
the  horse  with  the  whip  or  spurs  and  restraining  by  the  curb. 
This  breaks  up  the  movement  of  a  slow  gait,  and  the  restraint 
is  sufficient  to  prevent  a  free  trot  or  canter,  so  that  the  horse 
flies  into  a  rapid  four-beat  gait.  The  rack  is  easy  for  the  rider, 
hard  for  the  horse.  It  is  showy,  and  some  horses  can  perform 
it  at  great  speed.  This  gait  has  been  officially  named  the  "rack" 
by  the  American  Saddle  Horse  Breeders'  Association,  hence 
the  name  "single  foot"  should  not  be  used.  It  should  be  smooth, 
swift,  and  without  side  motion  of  the  body  or  legs. 

Slow  pace. — The  slow  pace,  sometimes  called  the  "stepping 
pace,"  is  the  true  pace  so  modified  that  the  impact  on  the  ground 
of  the  two  feet  on  a  side  is  broken,  the  hind  foot  touching  first, 
thus  avoiding  the  rolling  motion  of  the  true  pace.  The  slow 
pace  is  a  comfortable  and  attractive  gait.  Many  trainers  do 
not  favor  it,  for  the  horse  easily  falls  into  the  habit  of  taking 
the  true  pace  which  is  not  a  desirable  saddle  gait  because  it  is 
rough  and  uncomfortable.  The  true  pace  is  the  worst  gait  a 
saddle  horse  can  possess;  the  rider  cannot  rise  to  it  and  save 
himself  as  in  a  trot. 

Fox  trot. — The  fox  trot  is  a  slow,  short-striding  trot.  It  is 
not  so  popular  as  the  running  walk.  It  is  a  broken-time  gait  and 
difficult  to  describe.  Some  riders,  when  asked  to  exhibit  the 
fox  trot,  simply  restrain  their  horses  to  as  slow  a  trot  as  pos- 
sible, seeking  to  pass  that  off  as  a  fox  trot,  but  the  true  fox 
trot  is  not  accompanied  by  restraint. 

Running  walk. — This  is  a  slow  gait,  as  are  also  the  slow 
pace  and  fox  trot.  The  running  walk  is  faster  than  a  flat-foot 
walk  and  is  taught  by  gently  urging  the  horse  out  of  the  ordinary 
walk,  but  restraining  him  from  a  trot  or  rack.  It  is  intermediate 
between  the  walk  and  rack.  The  movement  of  the  legs  is 
more  rapid  than  in  a  walk,  but  in  about  the  same  rhythm.  The 
true  running  walk  is  usually  characterized  by  a  bobbing  or 
nodding  of  the  head,  and,  in  some  instances,  by  a  flopping  of  the 
ears,  in  unison  with  the  foot-falls.  It  is  an  all-day  gait,  easy 
and  comfortable  to  both  horse  and  rider,  and  equal  to  six  miles 
an  hour  or  more.  It  is,  however,  not  as  showy  or  attractive 
as  the  other  gaits. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        423 

The  Three-Gaited  Saddle  Horse. 

This  type  is  also  styled  the  "walk,  trot,  canter  horse/'  and 
the  "park  hack."  This  is  the  horse  which  conforms  to  English 
fashions,  whereas  the  five-gaited  saddler  is  exclusively  an  Amer- 
ican type. 

General  appearance. — The  walk,  trot,  canter  horse  usually 
has  his  mane  pulled  and  his  tail  docked  and  set,  in  accordance 


Fig.  137.     The  Three-Gaited  Saddle  Type. 

Connoisseur,  an  excellent  type  of  walk,  trot,  canter  horse.     Owned' by 
Mr.  Wm.  Ritter,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

with  English  fashion,  whereas  the  five-gaited  horse  wears  a  full 
mane  and  tail.  Otherwise,  the  two  types  have  much  the  same 
general  appearance.  Most  three-gaited  saddlers  are  American 
Saddle  Horses  which,  for  one  reason  or  another,  are  marketed 
as  three-gaited  horses.  There  are  also  quite  a  number  of  walk, 
trot  horses  which  are  of  Thoroughbred  breeding,  and  some  have 
a  strong  infusion  of  the  blood  of  the  American  Trotter.  In  such 


424          TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

cases,  the  head  and  tail  are  not  carried  so  high,  and  there  is  not 
the  evidence  of  style  in  form  and  action  which  characterizes 
the  horse  that  is  of  American  Saddle  Horse  breeding. 

Gaits. — This  horse  must  show  three  gaits,  and  three  only; 
these  are  the  walk,  trot,  and  canter.  It  is  as  objectionable  for 
a  three-gaited  horse  to  show  more  than  the  gaits  mentioned  as 
for  the  five-gaited  horse  to  know  less  than  five  gaits. 

While  many  people  have  adopted  the  walk,  trot,  canter 
horse  in  preference  to  the  five-gaited  type  because  they  accept 
English  horse  fashions  as  law,  there  is  still  another  reason  why 
the  American  type  with  its  five  or  more  gaits  is  not  favored  by 
all  riders.  The  reason  is  that  there  is  no  advantage  in  having 
a  horse  with  all  the  gaits  unless  the  rider  is  skillful  enough  to 
keep  them  distinct.  If  the  man  is  less  instructed  than  the  horse, 
a  sad  confusion  of  paces  is  apt  to  result.  A  well-mouthed,  well- 
suppled  horse,  with  a  good  trot  and  a  good  canter  is  more  useful 
to  the  ordinary  rider  than  is  one  of  the  highly  accomplished 
gaited  saddlers;  hence  the  popularity  of  the  three-gaited  horse, 
especially  in  the  larger  cities.  Saddle  horse  breeders  recognize 
this  state  of  affairs  and  annually  send  to  market  a  large  number 
of  three-gaited  animals,  as  well  as  large  numbers  of  five-gaited 
horses. 

Outside  of  the  matter  of  gaits,  the  requirements  for  the  five- 
gaited  and  three-gaited  types  are  so  nearly  identical  that  one 
discussion  will  suffice  for  both. 

REQUIREMENTS  OF  THE  SADDLE  HORSE 

The  essential  points  to  be  looked  for  in  a  saddle  horse  are 
(1)  beauty  of  conformation,  (2)  sure-footedness,  (3)  comfort- 
able seat,  (4)  best  of  manners,  (5)  knowledge  of  the  gaits,  (6) 
endurance  and  durability,  and  (7)  dark  solid  color. 

1.  Beauty   of   conformation. — Attractiveness  of  form   and 
action  is  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  valuable  in  the  saddle  horse  as 
in  the  carriage  horse.     People  who  ride  for  pleasure  take  as 
much  pride  in  the  ownership  of  an  attractive  animal  as  do  the 
owners  of  .carriage  horses. 

2.  Sure-footedness — Saddle    action  must,  first  of  all,  be 
safe  and  sure.    A  horse  inclined  to  stumble  is  dangerous,  and 
cannot  be  highly  valued  for  saddle  purposes. 

3.  Comfortable    seat.— Though    a    horse     be   sure-footed, 
he  will  not  be  of  much  use  or  value  for  saddle  work  unless  he 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         425 

gives  his  rider  a  pleasant  ride.     Rough-gaited  horses  are  not 
useful  saddle  horses. 

4.  Manners. — The  intimate  relation  between  horse  and 
rider  calls  for  the  very  best  of  manners.     Conduct  that  would 
be  tolerated  from  a  horse  in  harness  may  be  very  disagreeable 
if  the  horse  is  under  saddle.     The  very  nature  of  the  use  to 
which  the  saddler  is  put  makes  manners  one  of  the  prime  es- 
sentials. 

5.  Knowledge    of   gaits. — To   a   considerable   extent   the 
value  of  the  saddle  animal  is  measured  by  his  knowledge  of 
the  gaits.    As  this  is  largely  a  matter  of  training,  it  is  placed 
fifth  in  the  list  of  requirements.     There  must  be  no  mixing  of 
gaits;  each  gait  must  be  distinct,  and  the  horse  should  change 
gaits  promptly  and  easily  at  the  signal  from  the  rider. 

6.  Endurance  and  durability. — This  implies  a  good  middle 
and  enough  substance  combined  with  quality  of  bone  and  joints 
to  insure  good  wearing  qualities.    Although  a  pleasure  horse 
and  hence  not  asked  to  do  extreme  labor,  nevertheless  real  pleas- 
ure does  not  come  to  the  rider  who  knows  his  horse  to  be  delicate 
in  bone,  or  otherwise  liable  to  injury,  if  called  upon  to  do  hard 
work. 

7.  Color. — Dark    colors    are    much    preferred,    including 
bay,  brown,  chestnut,  and  black.    Flashy  colors  such  as  dap- 
ple gray,  roan,  dun,  cream,  white,  and  parti-color  are  too  con- 
spicuous for  ordinary  saddle  use. 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION  OF  SADDLE  TYPE. 

Size  and  weight.— These  are  quite  variable  depending  on 
the  character  of  the  work  and  the  weight  of  the  rider.  The 
height  is  usually  from  15-1  to  15-3  hands,  and  the  weight  from 
1,000  to  1,150  pounds.  A  gaited  horse  of  15-1  hands  and  1,000 
pounds  is  termed  a  "lady's  saddler/'  or  if  a  walk,  trot,  canter 
horse,  a  "lady's  hack;"  but  for  heavier  riders  larger  animals 
are  required,  some  men  needing  a  horse  standing  over  16  hands 
and  weighing  1,200  pounds  or  even  more.  For  the  sake  of 
comparison  the  heights  and  weights  of  the  various  sub-types  of 
saddle  horses  are  here  given : 

Type  Height  Weight 

Five  gaited..                                                         ..15     —16  900—1200 

Three  gaited 14-3—16  900—1200 

Hunter 15-2—16-1  1000—1250 

Cavalry 15     —16  950—1200 

Polo  pony ...14     —14-2  850—1000 


426         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Conformation. — The  saddle  horse  is  considered  by  many 
people  to  be  the  most  stylish,  beautiful,  and  finished  of  all  horses. 
The  principal  requirements  in  conformation  are  (1)  a  long, 
refined  neck,  (2)  nicely  sloping  pasterns  and  shoulders,  and  (3) 
moderately  high  and  refined  withers.  The  lines  of  the  head 
should  be  cameo-like  in  sharpness  and  clean-cutness.  An  ideal 
saddler  will  naturally  have  a  head  showing  an  unusually  kind 
disposition  and  high  intelligence,  for  the  intimate  relation  be- 
tween horse  and  rider  demands  the  best  of  manners  in  the  horse 
and  thinking  ability  on  both  sides.  The  head  should  be  set  at 
the  right  angle  on  a  very  long,  refined,  nicely  arched  neck.  Un- 
less there  is  lots  of  horse  in  front  of  the  saddle,  the  appearance 
is  spoiled,  and  a  horse  with  a  short,  straight,  heavy  neck  is  not 
easily  controlled.  There  should  be  easy  flexion  of  jaw  and  neck, 
and  this  is  possible  only  with  a  long,  refined  neck,  properly 
arched.  However,  a  "weedy"  neck,  that  is,  one  lacking  in 
muscular  development,  is  not  wanted.  Much  attention  must  be 
given  to  the  slope  of  pastern  and  shoulder,  for  straight  pasterns 
and  shoulders  are  more  objectionable  in  the  saddle  horse  than 
in  any  other  type  because  they  are  almost  certain  to  make  the 
horse  a  hard  rider.  Height  and  refinement  of  withers  are  nec- 
essary for  a  similar  reason.  Horses  that  are  low  in  the  forehand 
are  not  comfortable  to  ride.  Furthermore,  the  saddle  cannot 
be  made  secure  on  round,  flat  withers,  this  being  particularly 
true  of  the  side  saddle.  The  extension  of  the  shoulder  into  the 
back  and  shortness  and  strength  of  coupling  are  very  important. 
A  straight  or  reached  back  does  not  afford  an  easy  ride;  there 
should  be  a  certain  degree  of  springiness,  without  any  weakness 
or  sway-backed  conformation.  The  saddle  horse  is  somewhat 
upstanding,  and  the  head  and  tail  should  be  smartly  carried. 

Refinement  and  finish. — The  saddle  horse  should  possess 
a  high  degree  of  quality,  and  lots  of  smoothness  from  end  to 
end.  There  should  be  greater  refinement  of  head,  ear,  and 
bone  than  in  the  heavy-harness  type  of  horse.  The  shoulders 
should  be  well  laid  in,  and  the  hindquarters  smoothly  turned. 
The  smoothness  of  the  typical  saddler  is  in  marked  contrast 
to  the  angular  appearance  of  the  roadster.  Rotundity  of  body 
is  a  highly  desirable  feature.  Levelness  of  croup  is  more  im- 
portant in  the  saddle  horse  than  in  any  other  type;  if  a  horse 
has  a  steep  croup,  the  defect  is  magnified  a  great  deal  when 
the  saddle  is  placed  upon  his  back,  and  he  presents  a  plain  ap- 
pearance. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        427 

Action. — The  action  should  be  energetic,  elastic,  of  mod- 
erate height,  and  especially  there  should  be  trueness  of  motion 
in  all  gaits.  Gracefulness  and  ease  of  action  are  very  desirable. 
A  springy  step  resulting  from  sloping  pasterns  and  shoulders 
is  more  essential  in  the  saddle  horse  than  in  any  other  type. 
A  straight-shouldered  and  -pasterned  horse  gives  one  a  ride 
like  a  carriage  without  springs.  Collected  action,  by  which  is 
meant  harmony  or  unison  of  movement  between  fore  and  hind 
legs  is  necessary  for  gracefulness  and  comfort.  It  also  means 
that  the  legs  will  be  kept  at  all  times  under  the  weight,  thus 
permitting  of  quick  turns  or  any  other  evolutions  desired.  Col- 
lected action  is  largely  a  result  of  properly  training  the  horse, 
and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  rider.  By  pressure  of  the  leg,  or 
use  of  the  whip  or  spur,  the  horse  is  kept  alert,  with  the  hind 
legs  well  under  the  body,  while  the  hands  bring  sufficient  pressure 
on  the  mouth  to  restrain  the  movement  slightly,  arch  the  neck, 
and  secure  a  slight  yielding  of  the  jaw.  If  the  action  is  not  col- 
lected, the  horse  moves  awkwardly  and  executes  sudden  com- 
mands in  a  clumsy  fashion. 

Temperament  and  disposition. — The  temperament  should 
be  sanguine,  as  in  all  other  light  horses.  The  disposition  should 
be  kind,  willing,  honest,  and  courageous.  There  should  be 
docility  with  high  spirit  and  animation. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 
THE  HUNTER  AND  POLO  PONY. 

The  hunter  and  polo  pony  differ  rather  markedly  from  the 
two  types  of  saddle  horses  described  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
largely  because  they  are  required  to  do  work  of  a  highly  special- 
ized nature  in  which  performance  is  of  greater  importance  and 
beauty  less  valued  than  with  the  gaited  horse  and  park  hack. 
Hence,  the  hunter  and  polo  pony  are  given  separate  considera- 
tion in  order  that  their  peculiarities  of  type  and  requirements 
may  be  better  emphasized. 

The  Hunter. 

The  hunter  is  the  type  used  in  following  the  hounds  in  fox 
hunting.  He  must  be  up  to  carrying  his  rider  at  good  speed 
over  long  distances  across  country,  jumping  fences  and  ditches 
when  called  upon  to  do  so.  Like  the  park  hack,  this  is  an  Eng- 
lish type. 

Although  the  American  demand  for  this  horse  is  some- 
what limited,  the  supply  is  still  more  so,  resulting  in  high  prices 
being  paid  for  green  horses  of  the  hunter  stamp.  In  England 
the  demand  is  great,  and  American  horses  of  hunter  type  have 
been  much  sought  after  by  exporters.  The  English  people 
have  invested  many  millions  of  dollars  in  the  sport  of  fox  hunt- 
ing. There  is  an  increasing  demand  for  hunters  in  this  country, 
and  the  demand  will  continue  to  grow  because  fox  hunting, 
besides  being  a  most  healthful  and  invigorating  amusement,  is 
also  a  fashionable  and  popular  sport  in  many  sections  of  the 
country.  It  is  estimated  that  within  twenty-five  miles  of  New 
York  there  are  six  hundred  to  eight  hundred  hunters  in  daily 
use,  and  that  the  suburbs  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  total 
nearly  fifteen  hundred  such  animals.  Many  are  well  worth 
over  $1,000,  and  a  great  majority  are  worth  $400  to  $500  each. 
It  is  probable  that  this  census  represents  from  $750,000  to 
$1,000,000  worth  of  horses  for  hunting.  In  Canada  there  are 
hundreds  of  excellent  hunters,  and  the  sport  is  on  the  increase. 
The  Central  West  of  the  United  States  is  beginning  to  take  up 
fox  hunting,  several  hunt  clubs  having  been  organized  in  that 
section  during  the  last  few  years. 

428 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        429 

From  the  nature  of  the  work,  the  hunter  must  be  a  horse 
of  more  size,  ruggedness,  and  constitution  than  the  other  types 
of  saddle  horses.  He  must  be  a  stayer  at  hard  work,  a  jumper, 
and  a  horse  of  courage  and  decent  manners.  His  bone  must 
be  of  good  size  and  of  the  right  quality,  and  there  must  be  an 
evidence  of  strength  throughout  his  conformation.  Other- 
wise he  cannot  long  withstand  the  hardships  of  the  hunting 
field. 

Height  and  weight. — With  reference  to  height,  much  will 
depend  upon  circumstances.  Weight-carrying  hunters  are  al- 
ways more  difficult  to  procure,  and  command  higher  prices. 
Short,  light-weight  men  prefer  15-2  hands  to  15-3,  but  height 
is  quite  subsidiary  to  conformation.  Where  fences  are  high, 
tall  horses  are  necessary,  but  conformation  must  not  be  sac- 
rificed to  this.  Some  hunters  are  nearly  17  hands.  Hunters 
are  classed  as  light,  middle,  and  heavy  weight  according  to  their 
size  and  weight.  Most  of  the  hunting  horses  in  use  range  in 
height  from  15-2  to  16-1  hands,  and  in  weight  from  1,000  to 
1,250  pounds. 

General  appearance. — The  general  appearance  of  the  hunter 
should  be  that  of  a  thin-skinned,  big-boned,  small-headed,  fine- 
shouldered,  deep-chested,  clean-legged  animal,  with  a  neatly 
turned,  compact  body,  and  having  a  facial  expression  of  great 
keenness,  docility,  and  quick  perception. 

Head. — The  head  should  be  refined;  the  forehead  straight; 
the  eyes  large  and  prominent;  the  ears  erect  and  thin;  and  the 
skin  covering  the  head  and  face  should  also  be  thin,  rendering 
the  various  prominences  upon  the  skull  easily  apparent.  The 
high-class  hunter  should  have  a  mild,  keen,  and  extremely  in- 
telligent expression. 

Neck. — The  neck  must  be  long,  narrow  towards  the  poll, 
and  the  head  should  be  carried  obliquely,  a  lofty  carriage  being 
undesirable  in  the  hunter.  As  the  shoulders  are  approached, 
the  neck  should  increase  in  width,  be  of  moderate  thickness, 
and  clean  along  its  upper  border,  with  a  closely-cropped  mane. 
Many  hunters  are  very  weedy  in  the  neck,  and  if  this  is  the  case, 
the  horse  is  unable  to  recover  himself  in  the  event  of  a  fall,  as 
the  muscles  of  the  neck  materially  assist  in  raising  the  forepart 
of  the  body  in  its  attempt  to  regain  balance. 

Withers. — The  upper  border  of  the  neck  should  pass  into 
high  withers,  and  most  of  the  best  hunters  are  high  in  this 
region. 


430        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Shoulders. — When  judging  hunters,  attention  must  be 
fixed  upon  the  shoulders,  not  only  while  the  horse  is  at  rest, 
but  also  when  jumping,  as  good  shoulder  action  is  one  of  the 
most  important  points  in  a  hunter.  In  action  it  must  be  free 
and  full,  yet  fine,  because  if  the  shoulders  are  logged  up  with 
muscles  (heavy  shoulders),  the  free  action  is  interfered  with 
when  jumping. 

Chest. — The  chest  must  be  deep;  in  fact,  it  is  self  evident 
that  a  hunter  should  be  "well-hearted"  in  order  to  provide  plenty 


Fig.  138.     A  Typical  Hunter. 

Surprise,  a  winner  at  the  Royal  Hunter  Show  and  many  other  shows  in 
England.     Owned  by  Sir  Merrick  Burrells. 

of  space  for  the  free  play  of  heart  and  lungs  under  extreme 
exertion.  Width  of  chest  is  not  required  and  often  means 
bulky  shoulders. 

Ribs. — A  slightly  flat  side  is  desirable,  though  the  ribs 
must  not  be  short,  otherwise  the  horse  becomes  "tucked  up" 
or  "washy"  in  appearance. 

Back,  loin,  and  croup. — The  back  and  loin  should  be  of 
medium  length,  and  the  latter  must  be  broad  and  clothed  with 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


431 


powerful    muscles,   passing   into   neatly   turned    quarters — the 
so-called  "goose  rump"  being  of  objectionable  conformation. 

Arms  and  knees. — The  arms  should  be  strong  and  power- 
ful; the  forearms  of  good  breadth  above  and  ending  below  in 
broad- join  ted,  clean  knees.  A  stiff  knee  is  certainly  detrimental, 
as  is  also  low  daisy-cutting  action,  as  such  horses  cannot  freely 
flex  and  extend  their  joints  during  the  leap. 


gKjjjgy^--*- 


Fig.  139.     The  Hunter  in  Action. 


Mr.  Edward  B.  McLean's  Alarms  jumping  at  the  National  Capitol  Horse 
Show  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  1914,  ridden  by  Mr.  Louis  Leith. 

Thighs  and  hocks. — The  first  and  second  thighs  must  be 
neatly  turned,  and  clothed  with  powerful  muscles.  Particular 
attention  must  be  paid  to  the  hocks  and  to  hock  action;  the 
hock  joints  must  be  broad,  deep  from  front  to  back,  clean  in 
outline,  and  covered  with  thin  skin. 

Cannons,  fetlocks,  and  pasterns. — The  cannons,  fetlocks, 
pasterns,  and  feet  demand  special  examination.  The  so-called 
"clean"  legs  are  indispensable,  and  every  horseman  knows  the 


432 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


meaning  of  this  term.  If  a  hunter's  legs  are  of  this  descrip- 
tion, there  is  little  fear  that  they  will  fill  up  after  a  heavy  day's 
work.  Associated  with  cleanness  must  be  considerable  sub- 
stance. The  fetlocks  must  be  capable  of  full  flexion.  The 
ideal  pastern  is  one  with  a  moderate  degree  of  slope,  broad  in 
front,  deep  from  front  to  back,  and  well  rounded  at  the  sides. 
It  should  be  covered  with  thin  skin.  Pasterns  that  are  too 
long,  too  oblique,  or  light  in  the  bone,  are  of  bad  conformation; 
and  short,  upright  pasterns  are  extremely  objectionable  for 
very  evident  reasons. 


Fig.  140.     A  Hunt  Team  and  Pack  of  Fox  Hounds. 

Feet. — The  feet  must  be  concave  on  their  lower  surface, 
proportionate  in  size,  of  good  shape,  well  open  at  the  heels, 
neither  contracted  nor  cracked. 

Color. — In  selecting  a  hunter,  color  seldom  plays  any  part, 
and  in  the  hunting  field  are  horses  of  almost  every  color.  Bay, 
brown,  light  or  dark  chestnut,  and  gray  are  the  principal  colors, 
more  especially  bay  and  brown,  with  either  white  or  black  points. 

Disposition. — This  is  of  great  importance  in  order  to  insure 
the  safety  of  other  horses,  the  hounds,  and  the  rider.  Some 
hunters  are  tremendous  pullers,  in  fact,  defy  all  attempts  to 
hold  them.  There  is  great  difference  in  temperament  and  dis- 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        433 

position — one  hunter  will  rush  at  his  fences  in  a  reckless  and 
headstrong  way,  and  another  will  even  walk  to  his  jump  and 
clear  it  in  a  businesslike  manner.  It  is  because  so  many  Thor- 
oughbreds have  bad  dispositions,  that  horses  having  a  small 
amount  of  draft  blood  are  often  more  desirable  as  hunters  than 
are  those  of  straight  Throroughbred  breeding. 

Production  of  hunters. — There  is  no  breed  of  hunters. 
They  are  largely  of  Thoroughbred  breeding,  about  seven  parts 
Thoroughbred  and  one  part  cold  (draft)  blood  being  a  gen- 
erally accepted  formula  in  breeding  hunters.  This  proportion 
is  secured  by  mating  a  three-quarter-blood  mare  with  a  Thor- 
oughbred stallion  of  correct  type  to  get  hunters.  The  infusion 
of  cold  blood  gives  greater  size  and  ruggedness  and  a  better 
disposition,  but  is  said  to  lessen  to  some  extent  the  staying 
qualities  and  gameness  of  the  animal.  Some  most  excellent 
hunters  have  come  of  straight  Thoroughbred  breeding.  Ireland 
has  long  enjoyed  a  wide  reputation  for  the  rearing  and  sale  of 
the  best  hunting  horses — the  name  "Irish  hunter"  carrying  the 
idea  of  super-excellence  in  this  type  of  horse,  even  if  some  so 
named  were  in  reality  bred  in  places  far  removed  from  the  Emerald 
Isle. 

The  Polo  Pony. 

Modern  polo  is  largely  a  rich  man's  game.  It  is  played 
with  four  mounted  men  on  a  side,  the  object  being  to  drive  a 
wooden  ball  between  goal  posts  at  the  ends  of  a  field  300  yards 
long  and  120  to  150  yards  wide.  Each  player  carries  a  long- 
handled  mallet  of  regulation  design.  It  is  a  very  fast  game 
for  both  ponies  and  men,  requiring  quickness  and  precision. 

History  of  polo. — Polo  existed  in  Persia  and  Turkey  be- 
fore the  tenth  century.  Thence  it  spread  to  Central  Asia, 
Thibet,  and  Central  India,  being  found  at  Calcutta  in  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries.  It  is  said  to  have  also  existed 
in  Japan  a  thousand  years  ago.  English  officers  returning 
from  India,  in  1874,  started  polo  at  the  Hurlingham  Club,  Ful- 
ham,  England.  Hurlingham  has  since  been  recognized  as  the 
great  center  of  the  sport,  and  the  rules  it  has  laid  down  have 
been  accepted  as  authority  in  every  country  except  America, 
where  a  few  changes  in  these  rules  have  been  made. 

The  game  was  introduced  into  this  country  in  1876,  and 
from  a  small  start  made  in  that  year  it  has  steadily  grown  in 
favor.  In  1911  there  were  42  civilian  clubs  and  38  military 


434         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

posts  in  this  country  where  polo  was  played.  The  game  is 
now  played  the  world  over.  When  first  introduced  into  this 
country,  the  ponies  used  were  13-2  hands  high;  from  these, 
very  tall  men  almost  touched  the  ground  with  their  feet.  Larger 
and  faster  ponies  were  found  more  advantageous,  and  the  stand- 
ard was  fixed  at  14  hands.  It  has  since  been  raised  to  14-1, 
and  again  to  14-2,  the  present  standard.  The  rules  limit  the 
height  of  ponies  to  14-2  hands  or  under,  but  this  rule  is  not 
strictly  enforced;  the  modern  game  is  played  at  such  high  speed 
that  only  big  14-3  to  15-hand  Thoroughbred  or  three-quarter- 
blood  ponies  are  considered  good  enough  for  important  matches. 
The  range  in  weight  is  from  850  to  1,000  pounds. 

Demand  for  good  ponies. — It  is  a  thoroughly  established 
fact  that  a  player  is  no  more  proficient  than  his  pony.  The 
question  of  suitable  mounts  has  been  troublesome  to  American 
players  from  the  very  first.  There  was  a  time  when  western 
cow  ponies  made  acceptable  mounts  for  the  game.  They  were 
brought  to  the  East  by  the  carload  and  sold  at  very  moderate 
prices.  A  small  percentage  of  these  developed  into  really  good 
polo  ponies.  As  competition  became  keener,  the  demand  for 
better  and  better  ponies  became  more  imperative,  and  today 
the  cow  pony  has  been  replaced  by  what  is  virtually  a  Thor- 
oughbred horse  of  small  size.  In  almost  every  case,  the  best 
modern  ponies  were  sired  by  a  Thoroughbred  stallion.  English 
ponies  used  for  polo  have  always  carried  more  or  less  Thor- 
oughbred inheritance;  they  are  bred  in  the  purple,  trained  two 
years,  and  carefully  housed  and  fed. 

Five  years  ago  a  number  of  American  ponies  were  valued 
at  $1,000,  and  for  some  imported  English  ponies  up  to  $2,000 
had  been  paid.  At  a  sale  in  England,  in  1898,  a  pony  named 
Sailor,  brought  $3,750.  In  1909  the  American  team  which 
went  to  Hurlingham  to  compete  for  the  world's  championship 
was  enabled  to  win  largely  because  of  the  excellence  of  their 
ponies.  These  ponies  were  English-bred,  and  were  reported 
to  have  cost  high  prices  ranging  up  to  $5,000.  The  American 
victory  brought  as  much  credit  to  English  pony  breeders  as  it 
did  to  the  playing  ability  of  the  American  team.  In  cham- 
pionship contests,  four  to  six  ponies  are  used  by  each  player 
and  some  players  maintain  a  big  string  of  ponies  from  which 
to  make  selections  for  games. 

What  constitutes  a  good  polo  pony? — The  polo  pony  must 
combine  speed  with  weight-carrying  ability.  He  must  be 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


435 


wiry,  agile,  and  under  proper  training  must  acquire  ability  to 
quickly  start,  stop,  and  wheel.  He  must  have  a  light  mouth. 
He  must  be  intelligent  and  learn  to  like  the  game  and  follow 
the  ball.  The  disposition  must  be  such  as  insures  a  level  head, 
doggedness,  docility,  courage,  and  quickness.  Much  depends 
on  the  rider;  there  is  danger  of  the  pony  becoming  a  puller  if  the 
rider  is  deficient,  and  some  ponies  become  ball-and-mallet  shy 
by  being  struck  accidentally  on  the  head  and  legs.  A  pony 
that  pulls  hard  or  becomes  wild  in  a  fast  scrimmage,  or  swerves 
off  the  ball,  is  useless  in  first-class  polo. 


Fig.  141.  Polo  Pony  of  Excellent  Type. 

Owned  by  Mr.  L.  Waterbury  and  ridden  by  him  when  a  member  of  the 
American  team  which  won  the  International  Cup  from  England. 

The  game  calls  for  lots  of  endurance  and  wearing  quality, 
hence  the  conformation  of  middle,  hindquarters,  feet,  and  legs 
largely  determines  a  pony's  adaptability  for  the  game.  The 
object  of  breeders  is  to  produce  a  pony  14-2  hands  high,  able  to 
carry  from  168  to  200  pounds  for  ten  minutes  in  a  fast  game. 

The  polo  pony  should  be  built  like  a  weight-carrying  hunter. 
His  head  should  be  well  set  on,  wide  between  the  jaws,  with 
plenty  of  room  at  the  throttle.  He  should  have  a  big,  clear, 
sound,  prominent  eye;  small,  pricked  ears,  indicative  of  alert- 


436 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


ness;  a  well-formed,  well-arched,  and  muscular  neck;  a  fine, 
sloping  shoulder;  not  too  fine  at  the  withers,  and  his  breast 
should  be  ample  and  in  proportion  to  the  remainder  of  the  fore- 
quarters.  His  forearms  should  be  big  and  powerful,  the  knees 
wide,  particularly  good  under  the  knee,  with  a  short  cannon. 
The  fetlocks  should  be  large  and  clean,  the  pasterns  well  supplied 
with  bone,  and  of  proper  slope  and  strength.  The  foot  should 
be  of  good  size,  smooth,  nicely  shaped,  the  heels  open,  and  the 
frog  well  developed  and  elastic. 

He  should  be  deep  from  withers  to  sternum,  and  fairly 
wide  through  the  chest;  he  should  be  short  in  the  back,  well 
coupled,  ribbed  close  up  to  the  hip,  with  plenty  of  muscle  be- 


Fig.  142.     The  Polo  Pony  in  Action. 

hind  the  saddle.  His  thighs  and  quarters  should  be  big  and 
powerful,  carrying  down  into  the  gaskin  in  well-defined  masses 
of  muscle,  and  the  gaskin  should  bulge  with  muscle  also.  The 
hock  should  be  broad  and  flat,  with  the  natural  prominences 
clean-cut  and  well  developed.  The  tendon  of  Achilles  should 
be  well  defined  and  powerful.  There  should  be  great  bone  be- 
low the  hock,  and  in  other  respects  the  hind  leg  should  be  similar 
to  the  fore  one. 

Production  of  polo  ponies. — At  present  the  only  method 
of  producing  ponies  such  as  the  modern  game  demands  is  the 
mating  of  polo  pony  mares  with  a  Thoroughbred  stallion  of 
approved  type.  However,  a  very  large  percentage  of  get  is 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        437 

over  height,  and  only  a  small  percentage  of  foals  that  are  of 
proper  size  have  the  conformation  and  disposition  to  become 
polo  ponies.  Evidently  the  breeding  of  this  pony  is  not  a  propo- 
sition for  the  general  farmer,  but  only  for  the  specialist  who 
makes  a  special  study  of  the  requirements  of  players  and  of 
methods  of  production.  In  Texas  and  other  western  states  are 
a  few  ranches  which  make  a  business  of  breeding  these  ponies 
and  training  them,  being  equipped  with  polo  fields  for  this 
purpose.  Beginning  with  western  cow  ponies,  they  have  graded 
up  their  pony  stock  by  the  use  of  dwarf  Thoroughbred  sires 
until  the  present  stocks  are  practically  of  straight  Thorough- 
bred breeding.  England  has  taken  up  the  production  of  polo 
ponies  in  a  more  systematic  manner  than  have  we  in  this  coun- 
try. In  1893  they  formed  the  Polo  Pony  Stud  Book  Society, 
thus  laying  the  foundation  for  pedigrees  and  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  breed.  The  name  of  the  society  was  later  changed 
to  the  Polo  and  Riding  Pony  Society.  Beginning  in  1895, 
annual  shows  have  been  held  by  this  organization,  and  enough 
progress  has  been  made  in  breeding  to  indicate  that  in  time  a 
true  breed  of  ponies  for  polo  will  be  established.  When  this 
is  accomplished,  the  production  of  polo  ponies  will  not  be  so 
difficult  or  uncertain  as  it  is  today. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 
MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES. 

The  present  rank  and  importance  of  the  various  horse 
markets  is  shown  by  the  following  figures  giving  the  receipts 
for  1918: 

1.  St.  Louis 241,827  T.Omaha ...22,212 

2.  Chicago 87,820          8.  Indianapolis 19,608 

3.  Kansas  City 84,628  9.  Denver 14,599 

4.  Fort  Worth 78,881        10.  Oklahoma  City 12,678 

5.  St.  Joseph 39,260         11.  Wichita 10,782 

6.  Sioux  City 23,306  12.  St.  Paul ....                       .  6,541 


Auction  rules. — At  the  large  horse  markets,  horses  are  sold 
at  auction  under  certain  rules  which  are  well  known  and  under- 
stood by  all  horsemen  who  buy  or  sell  at  these  markets.  As 
the  horse  comes  into  the  auction  ring,  a  clerk  on  the  auctioneer's 
stand  displays  a  placard  on  which  appears  in  large  letters  the 
rule  under  which  the  animal  will  be  sold,  such  as  "Sound/' 
"Serviceably  sound,"  "At  the  halter,"  etc.  The  rule  under 
which  the  horse  is  sold  is  a  guarantee  made  by  the  seller  to  the 
buyer.  The  buyer  has  until  noon  of  the  following  day  to  refuse 
the  horse,  if  upon  examination  and  trial  he  finds  that  the  animal 
is  not  as  represented. 

The  definitions  of  the  principal  rules  which  govern  the 
sale  of  horses  are  given  below.  Exceptions  to  these  rules  may 
be  announced  from  the  auction  stand,  pointing  out  the  defects, 
in  which  case  they  are  recorded  and  go  with  the  horse. 

1.  Sound. — Perfectly  sound  in  every  way. 

2.  Serviceably  sound. — Virtually  a  sound  animal,  barring 
slight  blemishes  which  do  not  interfere  with  his  usefulness  in 
any  way.     His  wind  and  eyes  must  be  good,  but  a  spot  or  streak 
in  the  eye  which  does  not  affect  the  sight  will  be  considered 
serviceably  sound  as  long  as  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  good.     He 
must  not  be  lame  or  sore  in  any  way. 


111.  Bui.  122,  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Horses  and  Mules,  by  R.  C. 
Obrecht,  has  been  used  as  the  basis  for  much  of  this  chapter  and  Chapter 
XXXVIII.  The  student  will  find  it  well  worth  while  to  refer  to  this  bulletin, 
especially  for  the  excellent  illustrations  which  it  contains. 

438 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        439 

3.  Wind  and  work. — The  only  guarantee  this  carries  with 
it  is  that  the  animal  has  good  wind  and  is  a  good  worker. 

4.  Work  only. — He  must  be  a  good  worker,   but   every- 
thing else  goes  with  him.     No  other  guarantee  than  to  work. 

5.  Legs  go. — Everything  that  is  on  the  animal's  legs  goes 
with  him;  nothing  is  guaranteed  except  that  he  must  not  be 
lame  or  crampy.     He  must,  however,  be  serviceably  sound  in 
every  other  respect. 

6.  At  the  halter. — Sold  just  as  he    stands    without    any 
recommendations.     He  may  be  lame,  vicious,  balky,  a  kicker, 
or  anything  else.     The  purchaser  takes  all  the  risk.     The  title 
only  is  guaranteed. 

Market   requirements. — The  factors   that   determine   how 
well  horses  sell  upon  the  market  are  soundness,  conformation, 


Fig.  143.     Horse  Market  at  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago. 

Winding  and  trying-out  horses  immediately  after  purchase.  If  the 
horse  is  found  to  be  not  as  represented  when  sold,  the  buyer  has  the  privilege 
of  returning  him  to  the  seller. 

quality,  condition,  action,  age,  color,  training,  and  style.     These, 
together  with  some  minor  considerations,  are  discussed  below. 

.Soundness. — The  market  demands  that  a  horse  be  service- 
ably  sound,  by  which  is  meant  one  that  is  as  good  as  a  sound 
horse  so  far  as  service  is  concerned.  He  may  have  slight  blem- 
ishes, but  nothing  that  is  likely  to  cause  lameness  or  soreness 
in  any  way.  He  must  be  good  in  wind  and  eyes,  but  may  have 
small  splints  and  puffs,  and  a  little  rounding  on  the  curb  joint. 
Broken  wind,  thick  wind,  sidebones,  unsound  hocks  such  as 
curbs,  spavins,  and  thoroughpins,  large  splints,  and  buck  knees 
are  discriminated  against. 


44'0         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Conformation. — If  a  horse  is  to  do  hard  work,  with  a  min- 
imum of  wear,  and  give  the  longest  possible  period  of  service, 
he  must  possess  a  conformation  indicative  of  strength,  endur- 
ance, and  longevity,  the  indications  of  which  are  good  feet,  a 
good  constitution,  good  feeding  qualities,  good  bone,  and  sym- 
metry of  conformation.  Conformation  has  been  discussed 
fully  in  connection  with  the  various  types  described  in  preceding 
chapters,  and  no  further  discussion  is  necessary  here. 

Quality. — Quality  in  a  horse  is  of  great  importance,  as  has 
already  been  emphasized.  A  horse  lacking  in  quality  is  a  com- 
paratively cheap  animal. 

Condition. — To  be  appreciated  on  the  market,  a  horse 
must  be  fat  and  possess  a  good  coat  of  hair,  which  gives  him 
a  sleek  appearance.  Condition  is  most  important  in  draft, 
chunk,  and  wagon  horses.  When  a  green  horse  goes  to  the 
city,  he  loses  weight  during  the  first  few  weeks  until  he  becomes 
used  to  the  new  conditions,  and  it  is  a  decided  advantage  if  he 
enters  city  work  carrying  a  high  finish.  When  a  horse  is  fed 
to  a  high  state  of  fatness,  it  invariably  improves  his  spirit  and 
style,  as  well  as  his  form  and  weight.  In  some  individuals,  fat 
covers  many  sins.  The  man  who  sends  his  horse  to  market  in 
finished  form  is  offering  the  animal  in  most  attractive  condition. 
Condition  is  a  very  important  item  of  value  on  the  horse 
market. 

Action. — Action  has  been  fully  discussed  in  preceding  chap- 
ters. We  have  seen  that  the  requirements  vary  according  to 
the  type  of  horse,  and  that  action  is  always  a  very  important 
item  of  value,  in  some  instances  being  as  important  a  factor  as 
any  in  determining  the  value  of  the  horse. 

Age. — Horses  sell  best  from  five  to  eight  years  old.  Heavy 
horses,  such  as  drafters  and  chunks,  sell  best  from  five  to  seven 
years  old,  but  a  well-matured  four-year-old  in  good  condition 
will  find  ready  sale.  Carriage,  saddle,  and  road  horses  sell 
better  with  a  little  more  age,  because  they  do  not  mature  so 
early  and  their  education  is  not  completed  as  soon  as  that  of 
heavy  horses.  They  are  most  desired  from  five  to  eight  years 
old. 

Color. — As  a  rule,  the  color  of  horses  is  of  secondary  im- 
portance, provided  they  possess  individual  excellence.  Previous 
discussions  of  the  various  types  have  shown  that  color  is  of  more 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        441 

importance  in  pleasure  horses  than  in  those  used  for  business 
and  utility  purposes. 

Training  and  disposition. — Every  class  calls  for  a  horse  of 
good  disposition  and  well  educated  for  his  work.  Mere  "green- 
ness" in  a  drafter,  however,  does  not  affect  the  price  much  if 
he  is  free  from  vice  and  bad  habits,  but  carriage  and  saddle 
horses  must  be  thoroughly  schooled  in  order  to  realize  good 
values. 

Sex. — Sex  is  not  of  great  importance  in  the  market.  How- 
ever, geldings  sell  better  than  mares  for  city  use,  as  there  is  some 
liability  of  mares  being  in  foal,  and  if  not,  the  recurrence  of 
heat  is  objectionable.  For  farm  use  and  southern  trade,  mares 
are  preferred,  because  farmers  buy  horses  with  the  expectation 
of  breeding  them. 

Breed. — The  breed  to  which  a  horse  belongs  has  but  little 
or  no  influence  upon  his  market  value  as  long  as  he  has  individual 
excellence. 

Style  and  freshness. — If  able  to  shape  themselves  well  in 
harness,  very  plain  horses  often  make  a  stylish  showing,  and  this 
increases  their  value  materially.  They  should  be  spirited  and 
energetic,  which  generally  comes  from  being  well  fed.  They 
should  be  well  groomed,  the  hair  being  short  and  sleek,  lying 
close  to  the  body,  and  possessing  a  luster  which  indicates  health. 
Clipping  of  the  foretop  and  legs  should  not  be  practiced  in 
the  case  of  heavy  horses,  as  it  is  an  indication  of  staleness  or 
second-hand  horses.  The  presence  of  the  foretop  and  feather 
leaves  no  doubt  as  to  freshness  from  the  country.  The  feet 
should  be  in  good  condition  and  of  a  good  length  hoof,  which 
is  necessary  to  hold  a  shoe. 

Breeders  make  no  real  effort  to  supply  some  of  the  market 
classes  of  horses,  either  because  the  demand  is  very  limited 
or  the  price  too  small.  Such  classes  are  supplied  by  careless 
breeding,  by  the  mixing  of  types,  and  by  the  misfits  which  re- 
sult even  when  the  breeding  of  horses  is  conducted  as  carefully 
as  possible. 

The  classification  outlined  below  includes  not  only  those 
classes  of  horses  .which  are  regular  commodities  on  the  large 
horse  markets,  but  also  other  more  rare  and  valuable  classes 
which  are  only  to  be  had  from  certain  dealers  and  breeders 
who  cater  to  an  exclusive  trade  not  represented  at  the  large 
markets: 


442 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Classes 


DRAFT  HORSES 


CHUNKS 


WAGON  HORSES 


CARRIAGE  HORSES 


ROAD  HORSES 


SADDLE  HORSES 


Sub-classes 

[Heavy  Draft. 
\  Light  Draft .  . 
(Loggers. 


f Eastern  Chunks.  . 
•j  Farm  Chunks 
[Southern  Chunks 


Height 
Hands 

.16  to  17-2 
15-3  to  16-2 
16-1  to  17-2 

.15      to  16 
15      to  15-3 
15      to  15-3 


Weight 
Pounds 

1750  to  2200 
1600  to  1750 
1700  to  2200 

1300  to  1550 

1200  to  1400 

800  to  1250 


Expressers  . 

15-3  to  16-2 

1350  to  1500 

Delivery  Wagon  .  .  . 
Light  Artillery  
Heavy  Artillery  . 

....15      to  16 
..  ..15-2  to  16 
..16      to  17 

1100  to  1400 
1150  to  1300 
1400  to  1700 

Fire  Horses.  . 

..15      to  17-2 

1200  to  1700 

Coach  Horses 

Cobs 

Park  Horses . 
Cab  Horses . . 

f  Runabout.  .  . , 
\Roadsters.  .  . 


15-1  to  16-1 
14-1  to  15-1 
15  to  15-3 
15-2  to  16-1 

14-3  to  15-2 
15  to  16 


1100  to  1250 

900  to  1150 

1000  to  1150 

1050  to  1200 

900  to  1050 
900  to  1150 


Five-Gaited  Saddler  .  .  . 
Three-Gaited  Saddler  .  . 
Hunters 

.15      to  16 
.14-3  to  16 
15-2  to  16-1 

900  to  1200 
900  to  1200 
1000  to  1250 

Cavalry  Horses  
Polo  Ponies  .  . 

.15      to  16 
14      to  14-2 

950  to  1200 
850  to  1000 

MISCELLANEOUS 


Feeders 
Range  Horses 
Ponies 
Plugs 
Weeds 

Draft  Horses. 

A  full  description  of  draft  type  has  already  been  presented, 
so  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  mention  the  chief  distinctions 
between  the  three  sub-classes,  Heavy  Draft,  Light  Draft,  and 
Loggers. 

Heavy  draft. — These  are  the  heavier  weights  of  the  draft 
class;  they  stand  from  16  to  17-2  hands  high,  and  weigh  from 
1750  to  2200  pounds. 

Light  draft. — The  light  drafter  is  similar  in  type  to  the 
heavy  drafter,  but  is  smaller;  they  stand  from  15-3  to  16-2 
hands,  and  weigh  from  1600  to  1750  pounds.  While  15-3  hands 
is  accepted  as  the  minimum  height  for  light  drafters,  it  should 
be  understood  that  a  15-3-hand  horse  is  less  desirable  than  a 
taller  horse,  and  he  borders  closely  on  the  class  known  as  eastern 
chunks. 

Loggers. — These  are  horses  of  draft  type  that  are  bought 
for  use  in  the  lumbering  woods.  This  trade  demands  com- 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


443 


paratively  cheap  horses,  yet  wants  them  big  and  strong.  Be- 
cause of  the  prices  paid,  the  trade  is  usually  compelled  to  take 
the  plainer,  rougher  horses  of  the  heavy  draft  class,  and  some 
are  slightly  blemished  or  unsound,  such  as  "off  in  the  wind," 
small  sidebones,  curbs,  wire  marks,  etc.  Loggers  should  stand 
from  16-1  to  17-2  hands,  and  weigh  from  1700  to  2200  pounds. 

Chunks. 

Usage  has  fixed  the  name  of  this  class,  which  is  significant  of 
the  conformation  of  the  horse,  rather  than  the  use  to  which  he  is 


Fig.  144.     Eastern  Chunk. 

put.  However,  the  prefixes  given  in  the  sub-classes  are  rather 
indicative  of  his  use.  Chunks  are  divided  into  three  sub-classes, 
Eastern,  Farm,  and  Southern. 

Eastern  chunks. — At  one  time,  this  class  was  known  as 
Boston  chunks,  but  as  the  trade  has  widened  to  other  cities 
they  are  known  by  the  general  name  of  eastern  chunks.  They 
are  most  generally  used  in  pairs  or  three  abreast  to  do  the  same 
work  as  draft  horses;  but  may  be  used  in  pairs,,  in  a  four-in-hand, 
or  in  a  six-in-hand  team.  The  eastern  chunk  may  be  briefly 
and  accurately  described  as  a  horse  of  draft  horse  type  in  all 
respects  except  size  and  weight.  He  is,  then,  a  little  drafter. 
He  is  usually  a  little  more  blocky  and  compact  than  the  true 


444         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

drafter.  He  stands  from  15  to  16  hands  high,  usually  not  over 
15-3,  and  weighs  from  1300  to  1550  pounds,  depending  upon 
size  and  condition.  Being  required  to  do  his  work  mostly  at 
the  walk,  his  action  should  be  similar  to  that  of  the  draft  horse. 

Farm  chunks. — Horses  of  this  class  may  be  found  on  the 
market  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but  during  the  spring  months 
they  form  an  important  feature  of  the  trade.  They  are  bought 
to  be  used  on  the  farm,  and  are  in  most  urgent  need  during  the 
season  when  crops  are  being  planted.  They  are  usually  of 
mixed  breeding,  draft  blood  predominating,  and  are  commonly 
known  among  farmers  as  "general-purpose"  animals.  Mares 
are  more  generally  taken  than  geldings.  For  this  class,  low-set, 
blocky  horses  are  wanted,  not  so  heavy  as  the  eastern  chunks. 
Farm  chunks  are  usually  lighter  in  bone,  and  often  slightly 
blemished  or  unsound.  In  general,  the  typical  farm  chunk 
should  be  a  moderate-sized,  all-round  good  individual,  standing 
from  15  to  15-3  hands  high,  and  weighing  from  1200  to  1400 
pounds.  Being  lighter  horses  than  the  eastern  chunks,  they 
should  be  a  little  quicker  and  more  active.  The  varied  use  to 
which  horses  are  put  on  farms  requires  ability  to  trot  readily 
if  necessary.  However,  since  the  walk  is  their  most  important 
gait,  they  should  be  good  walkers  and  do  it  with  ease  and  rapidity. 

Southern  chunks. — In  some  markets  these  are  termed 
"southern  horses,"  or  "southerns."  They  are  small  horses 
that  are  taken  by  dealers  to  large  southern  cities  and  sold  to 
southern  planters  for  tilling  their  lands  and  for  driving  and 
riding.  The  southern  farmer  does  not  cultivate  deeply,  and 
the  soils  are  light,  consequently  he  does  not  require  very  large 
horses.  However,  each  year  the  trend  of  the  market  is  for 
larger  horses  for  this  trade.  Southern  chunks  are  small  horses 
standing  from  15  to  15-3  hands  high,  and  weighing  from  800  to 
1250  pounds.  They  are  rather  fine  of  bone,  possessing  an  abun- 
dance of  quality,  and  are  more  rangy  in  conformation  than  any 
of  the  other  chunks,  having  more  of  the  light  horse  blood.  Many 
of  them  are  similar  to  the  cheaper  horses  used  on  the  light  delivery 
wagons  of  cities.  They  should  have  good  action.  The  southern 
chunk  is  comparatively  a  cheap  horse. 

Wagon  Horses. 

This  class  includes  horses  useful  for  quick  delivery.  The 
demand  is  from  cities  and  towns.  These  horses  must  be  closely 
coupled,  compactly  built,  with  plenty  of  constitution  and  stamina. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


445 


They  must  be  good  actors,  have  a  good,  clean  set  of  legs,  with 
plenty  of  bone  and  quality,  and  a  good  foot  that  will  stand  the 
wear  of  paved  streets.  The  sub-classes  are  Express  Horses, 
Delivery  Wagon  Horses,  Light  Artillery  Horses,  Heavy  Artillery 
Horses,  and  Fire  Horses.  Their  breeding  is  a  mixture  of  draft 
and  light  bloods.  They  are  neither  light  nor  heavy  horses,  but 
may  be  termed  middle-weights. 

Express  horses. — Express  horses  are  used  by  express  com- 
panies to  collect  and  deliver  goods  to  and  from  railroad  stations. 
Different  companies  use  horses  of  slightly  different  size  and 
weight.  For  instance,  if  the  business  of  a  company  is  centrally 


Fig.  145.     Express  Horse. 

located  in  a  city,  and  depots  are  not  far  apart,  they  use  larger 
horses  and  load  heavier;  if  the  business  is  done  in  the  outlying 
parts  of  a  city,  and  the  depots  are  a  considerable  distance 
apart,  lighter  horses  with  more  action  are  wanted.  They  are 
used  singly  or  in  pairs,  and  the  size  of  the  horse  will  depend 
on  the  weight  of  the  wagon.  The  lightest  ones  are]  called 
"money  horses,"  as  they  are  hitched  to  the  lightest  wagons 
to  deliver  valuables,  this  kind  of  work  demanding  quick  service. 
The  typical  expresser  is  rather  upstanding,  deep  bodied, 
and  closely  coupled,  with  good  bone  and  an  abundance  of  qual- 
ity, energy,  and  spirit.  He  should  stand  from  15-3  to  16-2 


446         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1350  to  1500  pounds  in  good  flesh; 
the  average  express  horse  is  16  to  16-1  hands  high,  and  weighs 
around  1400  pounds  in  working  condition.  His  head  should 
be  neat,  his  neck  of  good  length,  and  his  crest  well  developed. 
His  shoulder  should  be  obliquely  set,  coupled  with  a  short, 
well  muscled  back  and  a  strong  loin.  His  croup  should  be 
broad,  rounding,  and  well  muscled,  his  quarters  deep,  and  thighs 
broad.  He  should  not  be  goose  rumped,  nor  cut  up  in  the  flank. 
His  underpinning  should  be  of  the  very  best,  his  cannons  broad 
and  clean,  and  his  hoofs  of  a  dense,  tough  horn. 

The  express  horse  is  required  to  do  his  work  both  at  the 
walk  and  trot,  the  latter  being  the  principal  gait.  He  should 
be  quick  and. active,  and  should  keep  his  feet  well  under  him 
and  throw  enough  weight  into  the  collar  to  move  a  heavy  load 
at  the  walk,  or  a  lighter  load  at  the  trot.  As  in  the  previous 
classes,  he  should  be  a  straight-line  mover,  with  possibly  a  little 
more  knee  and  hock  action. 

Delivery  wagon  horses. — Generally  speaking,  delivery  wagon 
horses  are  not  as  large  as  expressers,  and  not  as  high  grade 
animals;  most  mercantile  firms  are  not  such  liberal  buyers  as 
the  express  companies,  and  consequently  they  get  a  cheaper 
grade  of  horses.  However,  this  is  not  always  true,  as  some  of 
the  large  department  stores,  whose  deliveries  serve  as  an  ad- 
vertisement, will  pay  more  for  the  very  best  than  express  com- 
panies, thus  getting  very  choice  animals.  The  conformation 
requirements  are  practically  the  same  as  for  express  horses, 
except  they  are  not  quite  so  large,  standing  from  15  to  16  hands, 
and  weighing  from  1100  to  1400  pounds.  The  action  require- 
ments are  the  same  as  for  express  horses,  though  some  are  not 
as  good  actors.  The  demand  for  delivery  wagon  horses  comes 
from  all  kinds  of  retail  and  wholesale  mercantile  houses,  such  as 
meat  shops,  milk  houses,  grocery  houses,  dry  goods  firms,  and 
hardware  merchants,  for  use  on  light  wagons  for  parcel  delivery. 
Some  of  the  coarser,  rougher  ones  are  used  on  the  huckster 
wagons,  junk  wagons,  sand  wagons,  and  by  contractors  for 
cellar  excavating,  street  cleaning,  railroad  grading,  or  almost 
any  kind  of  rough,  heavy  work. 

Light  artillery  horses. — These  conform  rather  closely  to 
the  better  grades  of  delivery  wagon  horses  of  the  same  weight. 
The  following  specifications,  prepared  under  the  direction  of 
the  Quartermaster  General  of  the  United  States  War  Depart- 
ment, clearly  set  forth  the  requirements. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


447 


"The  artillery  horse  for  light  and  horse  batteries  must  be 
sound,  well  bred,  of  a  superior  class,  and  have  quality;  of  a  kind 
disposition,  well  broken  to  harness,  and  gentle  under  the  saddle, 
with  easy  mouth  and  gaits,  and  free  and  prompt  action  at  the 
walk,  trot,  and  gallop;  free  from  vicious  habits;  and  otherwise 
to  conform  to  the  following  description:  A  gelding  of  specified 
color  (no  white  or  gray  horses  will  be  accepted),  and  in  good 
condition,  from  5  to  8  years  old  at  time  of  purchase;  height 
from  15-2  to  16  hands;  weight  from  1150  to  1300  pounds,  depend- 
ng  on  height.  Horses  otherwise  satisfactory  which  fall  short 
of,  or  exceed,  these  limits  of  weight  by  not  more  than  50  pounds, 
due  to  temporary  conditions,  may  be  accepted . 


Fig.  146.     Light  Artillery  Horse. 

"The  artillery  horse  for  light  and  horse  batteries  is  required 
for  quick  draft  purposes,  and  should  be  heavy  enough  to  move 
the  carriage  ordinarily  by  weight  thrown  into  the  collar  rather 
than  by  muscular  exertion.  Long-legged,  loose- jointed,  long- 
bodied,  narrow-chested,  coarse,  and  cold-blooded  horses,  as  well 
as  those  which  are  restive,  vicious,  or  too  free  in  harness,  will 
be  rejected." 

Heavy  artillery  horses. — The  U.  S.  Army  specifications 
for  artillery  horses  for  siege  batteries  are  as  follows: 

"A  gelding  conforming  to  the  above  specifications  for  horses 
for  light  and  horse  batteries,  except  that  the  animal  should  be 
from  16  to  17  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1400  to  1700  pounds, 


448         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

depending  on  height.  A  smart,  active,  draft  horse,  with  plenty 
of  bone  and  substance,  and  enough  quality  to  insure  staying 
power  in  fairly  fast  work,  is  required  for  this  service/' 

The  work  of  the  heavy  artillery  horse  is  much  heavier  and 
slower  than  that  of  the  light  artillery  horse,  and  the  type  de- 
manded in  the  horse  is  quite  different.  Here  it  is  a  question 
of  power  rather  than  of  speed,  and  the  heavy  artillery  horse  is 
in  fact  a  light  draft  horse,  though  some  fall  somewhat  short1  of 
the  weight  desired  in  light  drafters.  Heavy  artillery  horses 
might  properly  be  classed  with  draft  or  chunk  horses,  but  for 


Fig.  147.     Heavy  Artillery  Horses. 

convenience  are  included  in  the  same  general  class  as  the  light 
artillery  horses. 

The  demand  for  artillery  horses  is  rather  spasmodic,  at 
some  times  being  much  greater  than  at  others.  Contracts  are 
given  to  the  lowest  responsible  bidder  to  supply  them  in  large 
numbers  at  a  specified  time.  Because  of  the  rigid  examination 
and  requirements  of  official  inspectors,  some  men  have  lost 
money  in  filling  contracts. 

Fire  horses. — The  fire  horse  is  more  rangy  in  conforma- 
tion than  the  expresser,  he  being  required  to  throw  weight  into 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        449 

the  collar  and  often  to  take  long  runs.  The  requirements  are 
very  rigid,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  specifications  set  forth  by  Mr. 
Peter  F.  Quinn,  former  Superintendent  of  Horses  of  the  Chicago 
Fire  Department: 

"The  work  required  of  a  horse  best  suited  to  fire  depart- 
ment services  necessitates  almost  human  intelligence.  Such  a 
horse  must  not  only  be  well  bred,  sound  in  every  particular, 
quick  to  observe,  prompt  and  willing  to  respond  to  every  call, 
but  as  well,  ambitious  to  discharge  his  numerous  and  unusual 
duties  under  constantly  differing  surroundings.  In  selecting, 
the  first  requisites  are  tractability,  good  feet  and  legs,  with  bone 
and  hoof  of  the  best  texture,  a  short,  strong  back,  and  well- 
proportioned  fore-  and  hindquarters,  well  covered  with  firm, 


Fig.  148.     Fire  Horses. 

elastic  muscles.  For  heavy  engine  companies  and  heavy  hook- 
and-ladder  trucks,  a  gelding  of  uniform  and  hardy  color,  in 
good  condition,  from  five  to  seven  years  old,  standing  16  to  17-2 
hands,  and  weighing  from  1500  to  1700  pounds  should  be  selected. 
Hose-carriage  horses,  same  age;  weight  from  1200  to  1400  pounds; 
height,  15  to  16-2  hands." 

The  demand  for  fire  horses  is  very  limited,  coming  from- 
fire  companies  of  cities.  There  are  usually  enough  horses  in 
the  general  supply  to  meet  the  demand. 

Carriage  Horses. 

The  chapter  dealing  with  carriage  horse  type  presents  a 
detailed  description  of  the  general  class  known  as  carriage  horses, 


450        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

and  while  this  general  class  is  subdivided  into  at  least  four  smaller 
groups,  known  as  Coach,  Cob,  Park,  and  Cab  Horses,  neverthe- 
less the  differences  between  them  relate  mostly  to  size  and  weight, 
and  practically  the  same  conformation,  style,  and  action  is  de- 
sired in  all  four  sub-classes.  Keeping  carriage  horse  type  in 
mind  as  applying  to  all  four  groups,  only  a  few  remarks  are 
necessary  in  order  to  give  the  reader  a  correct  idea  of  each  sub- 
class. 

Coach  horses. — Coach  horses  may  be  described  as  car- 
riage horses  of  large  size.  They  should  stand  from  15-1  to 
16-1  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1100  to  1250  pounds.  The 
weight  is  not  so  important  as  the  size.  The  essential  thing  is 
to  get  a  horse  that  looks  right  before  the  large,  heavy  vehicle 
to  which  he  is  hitched.  For  instance,  the  most  desirable  height 
in  horses  for  a  park  drag,  body  break,  or  heavy  coach  is  15-3 
to  16  hands,  and  they  should  weigh  around  1150  to  1200  pounds. 
For  a  light  brougham,  a  pair  of  15-2  hand  horses,  weighing 
1100  pounds  is  more  appropriate.  A  hearse  requires  black 
horses  from  15-3  to  16-1  hands  high,  weighing  1200  to  1250, 
and  without  white  markings.  White  horses  are  also  used  to 
some  extent  by  undertakers. 

The  demand  for  coach  horses  comes  from  wealthy  men 
who  maintain  stables  of  fine  horses  and  equipages  for  pleasure 
driving.  They  are  hitched  singly,  in  pairs,  unicorn  (sometimes 
called  a  spike,  as  one  horse  is  hitched  to  the  end  of  the  pole, 
ahead  of  a  pair),  four-in-hand,  and  six-in-hand,  to  coaches, 
breaks,  park  drags,  etc.  A  large  percentage  of  coach  horses 
have  a  predominance  of  American  Trotting  Horse  blood,  while 
a  few  are  produced  from  the  imported  coach  breeds;  but  since 
many  of  the  imported  so-called  coach  horses  possess  the  common 
fault  of  grossness  and  coarseness,  as  a  class  they  do  not  possess 
the  requirements  demanded  by  the  American  markets. 

Cobs. — Cobs  differ  from  coach  horses  in  size  and  in  the 
use  to  which  they  are  put.  They  are  driven  singly,  in  pairs, 
or  tandem,  usually  by  ladies,  though  they  may  be  used  by  gen- 
tlemen as  well.  Cobs  stand  from  14-1  to  15-1  hands  high, 
and  weigh  from  900  to  1150  pounds.  The  strongest  demand 
comes  for  horses  14-3  to  15  hands  high,  and  weighing  from  1000 
to  1100  pounds.  Being  essentially  a  lady's  horse,  solid  colors 
are  wanted,  without  flash  markings.  They  are  usually  hitched 
o  a  light  brougham,  phaeton,  or  some  carriage  that  is  not  in- 
tended for  carrying  more  than  four. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        451 

Park  horses. — The  park  horse,  sometimes  called  the  gig 
horse,  is  neither  a  large  nor  a  small  carriage  horse,  but  is  a  car- 
riage horse  of  medium  size.  Many  coach  and  cob  horses  meet 
the  requirements  for  park  horses  so  far  as  size  and  weight  are 
concerned,  yet  cannot  correctly  be  classed  as  park  horses.  This 
is  because  the  park  horse  represents  the  cream  of  the  carriage 
horse  class.  He  is  a  higher-priced  horse  than  either  the  coach 
or  cob  horse.  He  has  the  same  conformation  and  action  as 
they,  but  his  conformation  is  more  perfect,  his  action  higher 
and  more  sensational,  and  his  style  and  elegance  more  outstand- 
ing. They  are  hitched  to  a  cart  or  gig,  or  may  be  driven  tandem 
to  the  latter  vehicle.  They  are  also  driven  in  pairs  before  mail 
phaetons  and  victorias.  The  limits  for  height  and  weight  are 
15  to  15-3  hands  and  from  1000  to  1150  pounds,  the  most  desir- 
able height  being  15-1  to  15-2  hands,  and  the  weight  from  1000 
to  1100  pounds.  It  is  readily  apparent  that  the  park  horse  is 
difficult  to  produce.  Some  are  of  Trotting  Horse  breeding, 
a  few  have  been  produced  by  crossing  Hackney  stallions  on 
Trotting  or  Thoroughbred  mares,  but  the  best  are  of  pure  Hack- 
ney breeding;  the  latter  method  is  attended  by  greater  certainty 
of  good  results  than  any  other  method  of  production. 

Cab  horses. — The  cab  horse  is  a  comparatively  cheap 
horse,  and  the  requirements  are  not  so  rigid  as  for  coach,  cob, 
or  park  horses.  They  are  used  on  cabs,  coupes,  hansoms,  and 
other  vehicles  for  public  service  in  cities.  They  are  much  the 
same  type  as  the  coach  horse,  in  fact  many  of  them  are  the 
discarded  and  lower  grades  of  the  coach  sub-class.  Cab  horses 
stand  from  15-2  to  16-1  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1050  to  1200 
pounds.  The  demand  comes  from  livery  and  transfer  companies. 

Road  Horses. 

This  class  includes  Runabout  Horses  and  Roadsters.  Run- 
about horses  occupy  an  intermediate  place  between  typical 
roadsters  and  carriage  horses,  but  on  account  of  their  action, 
conformation,  and  the  use  to  which  they  are  put,  may  be  more 
properly  classed  as  road  horses. 

Runabout  horses. — A  runabout  horse  is  a  rather  short- 
legged  horse,  standing  from  14-3  to  15-2  hands  high,  and  weigh- 
ing from  900  to  1050  pounds.  His  head  should  be  neat,  ear 
fine,  eye  large  and  mild,  neck  of  good  length  and  trim  at  the 
throttle.  The  neck  should  be  of  medium  weight,  not  quite 
so  heavy  as  that  of  the  coach  horse,  and  not  so  light  and  thin 


452 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


as  that  of  the  roadster.  The  shoulder  should  be  obliquely  set, 
the  withers  high  and  thin,  the  back  short,  well  muscled,  and 
closely  coupled  to  the  hips  by  a  short,  broad  loin.  The  barrel 
should  be  deep  and  round,  the  ribs  well  sprung,  and  the  chest 
deep;  the  croup  should  be  long  and  the  hips  nicely  rounded. 
The  legs  should  be  well  placed  and  heavily  muscled,  the  bone 
broad  and  clean,  and  the  pasterns  of  good  length  and  obliquely 
set,  joined  to  well-shaped  feet.  The  runabout  horse  is  not 
quite  so  stockily  built  as  the  cob,  being  not  so  heavy  in  neck 
and  crest,  not  so  full  made  and  rotund  in  body,  and  not  so  heavy 
in  quarters.  The  action  is  more  moderate  than  that  of  a  cob; 


Fig.  149.     Runabout  Horse. 

he  does  not  need  to  be  as  high  an  actor,  but  should  have  more 
speed.  The  action  should  be  bold,  frictionless,  and  straight, 
such  as  is  conducive  to  speed  and  beauty  of  form. 

The  demand  for  runabout  horses  is  for  single  drivers.  They 
are  used  in  cities  and  elsewhere  on  runabouts  and  driving  wagons. 
They  are  of  more  or  less  mixed  breeding,  the  predominating 
blood  being  that  of  the  American  Trotting  Horse. 

Roadsters. — The  chapter  dealing  with  light-harness  or 
roadster  type  sets  forth  the  requirements  for  roadsters  in  form, 
action,  and  speed,  and  discusses  the  uses  to  which  they  are  put. 
No  further  discussion  is  needed  here. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        453 

Saddle  Horses. 

The  saddle  horse  class  includes  the  five  sub-classes  known 
as  Five-Gaited  Saddlers,  Three-Gaited  Saddlers,  Hunters, 
Cavalry  Horses,  and  Polo  Ponies.  All  of  these,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  cavalry  horse,  have  received  full  consideration 
under  the  subject  of  types  of  horses  in  preceding  chapters. 
Space  need  be  given  here  only  to  a  description  of  the  cavalry 
horse. 

Cavalry  horses. — The  Quartermaster  General  of  the  War 
Department  has  sent  out  the  following  specifications  as  the  re- 
quirements for  an  American  cavalry  horse: 


Fig.  150.     Cavalry  Horse. 

"Each  horse  will  be  subjected  to  a  rigid  inspection  and  any 
animal  that  does  not  meet  with  the  requirements  should  be 
rejected.  No  white  or  gray  horses  will  be  accepted.  The 
mature  horse  must  be  sound,  well  bred,  of  a  superior  class,  and 
have  quality;  gentle  and  of  a  kind  disposition;  well  broken  to 
the  saddle,  with  light  and  elastic  mouth,  easy  gaits,  and  free 
and  prompt  action  at  the  walk,  trot,  and  gallop;  free  from  vicious 
habits;  and  otherwise  to  conform  to  the  following  description: 
A  gelding  of  specified  color,  in  good  condition,  from  5  to  8  years 
old  at  time  of  purchase;  weighing  from  950  to  1200  pounds, 
depending  on  height,  which  should  be  from  15  to  16  hands." 


454 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Cavalry  remounts  for  the  United  States  War  Department 
are  purchased  as  needed  through  contract  orders,  the  contract 
being  let  to  the  lowest  responsible  bidder.  In  filling  orders, 
dealers  are  often  obliged  to  educate  many  of  the  recruits  to 
the  saddle,  in  order  to  meet  the  specific  requirements. 

Miscellaneous  Horses. 

Feeders. — Feeders  are  horses  thin  in  flesh  which  are  pur- 
chased to  be  put  in  condition  and  resold.  They  may  belong  to 
any  of  the  above  classes,  but  the  practice  is  more  generally 
applied  to  draft  horses,  chunks,  and  wagon  horses.  The  old 
adage,  "a  little  fat  covers  a  multitude  of  defects/'  is  still  true; 


Fig.  151.     High-Class  Pony. 

King  Larigo,  Champion  Shetland  pony  stallion  at  the  Panama-Pacific 
Exposition  and  Champion  at  the  Iowa  State  Fair  for  five  years.  Owned  by 
Mr.  Geo.  A.  Heyl,  Washington,  111. 

the  value  of  flesh  when  put  on  thin  horses  can  hardly  be  appre- 
ciated, unless  one  has  seen  them  fleshed  and  placed  again  on 
the  market. 

Range  horses. — During  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  there 
may  be  found  on  the  market  horses  bred  and  reared  on  the 
range,  commonly  known  as  "range  horses."  They  are  divided 
into  two  general  classes,  light  and  heavy,  according  to  the  pre- 
dominance of  light  or  draft  horse  blood.  For  the  sale  ring, 
each  of  these  classes  is  divided  into  carlots  as  follows:  "colts," 
meaning  weanlings;  "ones,"  the  yearlings;  "twos,"  the  two- 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        455 

year-olds;  "dry  stuff,"  the  three-year-olds  and  over,  those  not 
suckling  foals;  and  "mares  and  colts,"  the  brood  mares  with 
foals  at  foot.  In  the  aution  ring,  the  price  is  stated  per  head 
and  the  buyer  takes  the  entire  lot.  Most  of  the  range  horses 
find  their  way  to  the  country,  where  they  are  usually  broken; 
when  educated,  they  may  be  returned  to  the  market  and  may 
fill  the  demand  for  some  of  the  commercial  classes. 

Ponies. — Ponies  of  various  grades  and  breeding  are  fre- 
quently found  on  the  market,  and  are  usually  bought  for  the 
use  of  children  and  ladies.  The  characteristics  distinguishing 
ponies  from  horses  are  not  easily  described.  The  principal 
distinguishing  feature  is  that  of  height,  a  pony  being  14  hands 
or  under.  But  there  are  dwarf  horses  that  do  not  have  pony 
blood  or  characteristics  that  come  within  these  limits.  Other 
pony  characteristics  are  a  deep  body  with  rounding  barrel, 
heavily  muscled  thighs  and  quarters,  croup  not  drooping,  and 
width  well  carried  out,  all  of  which  the  small  horse  does  not 
usually  possess.  The  neck  is  often  short  and  heavy,  though 
this  is  not  a  desirable  quality.  Ponies  are  essentially  chil- 
dren's horses,  and  they  must  be  kind  and  gentle  in  disposition, 
with  as  much  spirit  as  is  compatible  for  their  use.  There  are 
no  special  requirements  for  weight,  the  limits  being  quite  wide. 
They  should  be  straight-line  movers,  and  the  more  knee  and 
hock  action  they  possess,  the  higher  prices  they  will  bring, 
other  things  being  equal.  The  Indian  pony,  or  "cayuse"  as 
he  is  sometimes  called,  is  larger;  he  is  a  descendant  from  the 
native  range  stock,  and  is  classed  on  the  market  as  a  range 
pony. 

Plugs. — Plugs  are  worn-out,  decrepit  horses  with  but  little 
value.  This  class  is  too  well  known  to  need  description. 

Weeds. — Weeds  are  leggy  and  ill-proportioned  horses 
lacking  in  the  essential  qualities,  such  as  constitution  and  sub- 
stance. They  have  little  value  for  service  of  any  kind. 

Prices  for  Horses  at  Chicago. 

Prices  of  the  various  classes  compared. — Prices  during 
1918  averaged  as  follows  upon  the  Chicago  market,*  figures 
for  preceding  years  being  given  for  comparison: 

*  Year  Book  of  Figures,  1919. 


456        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Class  1918    1917     1916     1915    1910     1902 

Draft  horses..                                   ..$210  $215  $210  $203  $200  $166 

Southern  chunks.... 100  100  96  88  87  57 

Express  horses 170  175  169  166  161  135 

Carriage  horses  (pairs) .  .  .  ; 425  450  470  473  473  450 

Drivers 165  165  160  164  172  145 

Saddle  horses : ...   190  190  187  179  177  151 

General  use 150  150  146  155  144  117 

The  above  is  a  rather  incomplete  report,  but  it  is  all  that 
is  available.  The  total  value  of  all  horses  received  at  Chicago 
in  1918  was  $16,246,700,  and  their  average  value  was  $185. 
The  average  was  $185  in  1917,  $180  in  1916,  $180  in  1915,  $183  in 
1914,  $188  in  1913,  and  $179  in  1912.  In  connection  with  these 
figures  it  should  be  remembered  that  many  of  the  best  loads 
of  horses  from  the  cornbelt  are  taken  directly  to  the  eastern 
cities  for  sale,  being  gathered  by  country  buyers  who  consign 
them  to  eastern  dealers. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 
HORSE  BREEDING. 

This  is  a  broad  subject  which  may  be  considered  and  dis- 
cussed at  length  from  many  points  of  view.  Only  brief  treat- 
ment is  possible  here,  however,  in  which  the  most  common  mis- 
takes in  horse  breeding  are  pointed  out  and  their  remedies 
briefly  discussed.  This  is  written  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
farmer  who  desires  to  breed  horses  in  a  moderate  or  small  way 
for  the  profit  there  is  in  it. 

Horse  production  on  the  small  farm. — The  advantages  of 
intensive  farming  have  been  widely  discussed  for  a  number 
of  years.  Intensive  farming  is  farming  on  a  small  scale,  but 
doing  it  perfectly,  hence  realizing  the  largest  possible  return 
on  a  moderate  investment.  Horse  production  on  a  small  scale, 
as  discussed  here,  is  similar  to  intensive  farming.  It  means 
the  ownership  of  one  or  two  pairs  of  high-class  brood  mares, 
preferably  purebreds,  which  are  used  to  do  part  or  all  of  the 
farm  work,  and  which  are  given  the  very  best  care  and  atten- 
tion. They  are  bred  only  to  high-class  stallions  of  the  same 
breed  as  themselves,  and  during  pregnancy  they  are  well  cared 
for,  well  fed,  and  not  overworked.  As  foaling  time  draws  near, 
they  are  watched  carefully  and  assistance  is  given  if  necessary. 
They  foal  on  clean  bedding  in  a  clean  stall,  or,  better  still,  at 
pasture,  and  the  foals  are  immediately  treated  to  prevent  navel 
ill.  The  foals  are  given  the  best  of  care  and  are  carefully  trained, 
being  halter  broken  as  early  as  possible  and  made  gentle  by 
proper  handling.  They  are  kept  growing  after  they  are  weaned, 
and  in  due  time  are  carefully  and  thoroughly  educated  in  harness 
or  under  saddle,  as  the  case  may  be.  This  is  intensive  horse 
production. 

Intensive  horse  raising  therefore  means  keeping  a  few 
extra-good  brood  mares,  and  each  year  producing  a  few  extra- 
good  foals  which  may  be  grown  out  by  the  breeder  or  sold  as 
weanlings  or  yearlings  to  be  developed  by  someone  else.  The 
first  costs  under  this  plan  are  not  necessarily  less  than  where 
a  large  number  of  the  average  kind  of  brood  mares  are  kept. 
Good  brood  mares  cost  considerable,  but  they  are  the  only  kind 
on  which  large  profits  may  be  made.  If  this  plan  seems  im- 

457 


458 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


practicable  because  purebred  mares  are  expensive,  why  not 
reach  the  same  end  by  buying  a  weanling  or  yearling  filly  of 
the  desired  breed,  growing  out  this  filly  to  breeding  age,  and 
retaining  her  best  filly  foals  for  breeding  purposes?  In  this 
way,  given  a  few  years'  time,  it  is  easily  possible  to  get  on  an 
intensive  footing  with  as  many  mares  as  are  required. 

We  have  had  enough  of  the  average  kind  of  horse  produc- 
tion in  this  country;  in  fact,  far  too  much  of  it.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  beyond  all  doubt  that  it  pays  much  better  to 


Fig.  152.     Correct  Type  in  the  Draft  Stallion. 

Fyvie  Baron,  Champion  Clydesdale  stallion  at  the  1913  International. 
Owned  by  Conyngham  Bros.,  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.  Note  his  maculinity,  quality, 
style,  symmetry,  correct  position  of  legs,  nice  pasterns,  and  good  feet. 

keep  a  few  extra-good  brood  mares  and  raise  carefully  a  few 
good  foals,  than  it  does  to  keep  a  lot  of  cheap  mares  and  pro- 
duce .a  lot  of  cheap  horses,  without  feed  enough  to  give  any  of 
them  a  fair  chance.  Today  the  tendency  is  for  the  cheap  horse 
to  bring  less,  and  for  the  good  horse  to  bring  more  than  ever 
before.  The  motor  has  helped  to  bring  about  this  condition, 
and  the  writing  on  the  wall  should  be  heeded. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         459 

The  writer  once  visited  a  farm  where  he  was  shown  a  sixteen- 
year-old  grade  draft  mare  of  good  type  and  individuality.  On 
the  same  farm  were  five  good  mares,  all  out  of  the  aged  mare 
mentioned.  Other  of  her  numerous  offspring  had  been  sold 
at  good  prices.  The  mare  had  made  the  farmer  money  and 
was  still  making  it,  for  at  the  time  of  this  visit  she  had  a  fine 
filly  foal  by  her  side.  But  the  owner  was  not  satisfied.  "Think 
how  much  more  money  I  would  have  made,"  said  he,  "if  I  had 
begun  with  a  purebred  registered  mare.  If  the  old  mare  had  been 
purebred  and  registered,  the  value  of  every  one  of  her  foals 
would  have  been  easily  doubled,  and  it  wouldn't  have  cost  a 
cent  more  to  raise  them."  The  lesson  to  the  young  breeder 
is  clear, — start  right,  even  if  it  means  starting  slowly  by  buying 
one  young  registered  filly,  and  from  her  building  up  a  breeding 
stud  of  fine  mares. 

The  farms  of  the  Middle  West  and  East  are  well  adapted 
to  the  intensive  plan  of  horse  production,  because  most  of  the 
farms  are  not  large,  and  usually  the  teaming  is  done  by  the 
owner  himself,  or  by  one  or  two  hands  who  are  always  under 
close  observation.  On  big  farms,  with  incompetent  and  ever- 
changing  help,  if  valuable  brood  mares  are  kept,  they  are  liable 
to  be  injured  if  used  to  do  the  farm  work.  The  writer  is  not  one 
of  those  who  advocate  keeping  brood  mares  in  idleness.  They  will 
be  healthier  and  will  produce  stronger  foals  if  worked  in  modera- 
tion. The  plan  should  call  for  working  the  brood  mares,  but  not 
working  them  as  hard  as  we  work  geldings  or  mules.  Let  them 
earn  their  board,  and  board  them  well.  They  may  be  worked 
well  up  to  foaling  time  if  care  is  taken  not  to  back  them  to  a 
heavy  load,  or  put  them  to  a  hard  strain.  Mares  have  been  hur- 
riedly unhitched  and  unharnessed  while  cultivating  corn  or  doing 
some  other  moderate  work,  and  have  foaled  thrifty,  well-developed 
foals,  the  equal  of  any.  But  such  mares  have  been  well  fed  and 
cared  for  during  pregnancy,  and  they  should  be  given  as  long  a 
vacation  on  pasture  after  foaling  as  the  farm  work  will  permit. 

The  most  profitable  horse  breeding  in  France,  Belgium, 
England,  Scotland,  and  America  is  done  on  the  intensive  plan, 
on  farms  of  moderate  or  small  size,  by  farmers  who  are  good 
practical  horsemen  with  a  taste  for  doing  things  well.  There 
is  ample  room  in  the  United  States  for  much  more  horse  rais- 
ing on  this  plan,  and  we  have  always  had  too  many  inferior 
mares,  too  many  cheap  stallions,  and  too  many  cheap  horses 
hunting  buyers. 


460 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Choosing  a  type  to  breed. — What  type  of  horse  shall  the 
farmer  breed?  The  answer  depends  upon  how  much  capital 
is  available  to  put  into  the  business,  upon  the  personal  quali- 
fications of  the  breeder,  and  also  upon  his  personal  preference 
as  to  type.  To  some  extent,  the  choice  will  depend  upon  the 
location  of  the  farm,  and  upon  the  crops  that  can  be  grown. 
It  will  ordinarily  require  more  capital  to  engage  in  the  breed- 
ing of  light  horses  than  in  the  breeding  of  draft  horses.  Light 
horses  especially  require  more  expensive  equipment  to  accom- 


Fig.  153.     Correct  Type  in  the  Draft  Mare. 

Coldham  Surprise,  Champion  Shire  mare  at  the  1913  International. 
Owned  by  Mr.  Geo.  M.  McCray,  Fithian,  111.  Note  her  roomy  middle, 
faultless  top  line,  symmetrical  form,  abundant  muscling,  and  large  bone. 
She  has  ruggedness  and  strength  combined  with  quality  and  femininity. 

plish  the  training  and  finishing  without  which  they  sell  at  com- 
paratively moderate  prices.  Because  of  temperament  and 
disposition,  some  men  are  more  successful  with  one  type  of  horse 
than  another.  The  man  who  intends  to  engage  in  the  breeding 
of  horses  should  ask  himself  the  following  questions  regarding 
any  or  all  types  he  may  have  under  consideration.  1.  Am  I 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        461 

familiar  enough  with  the  type  and  the  methods  of  its  production 
to  know  what  I  am  striving  to  produce  and  how  to  produce  it? 
2.  Provided  I  can  produce  the  type  successfully,  how  can  I  dis- 
pose of  my  animals,  and  what  are  the  chances  of  realizing  full 
value  for  my  stock?  3.  Are  my  buildings,  fences,  land,  and 
crops  adapted  to  the  production  of  horses,  and  if  not,  can  I 
remedy  the  shortcomings? 

Advantages  of  draft  type. — In  the  majority  of  cases,  the 
best  type  for  the  farmer  to  produce  is  the  draft  horse.  It  has 
many  advantages.  The  brood  mares  are  much  better  suited 
to  do  the  work  of  the  farm  than  are  any  of  the  light  horse  types. 
Practically  no  special  training  is  needed  to  make  the  drafter 
ready  for  market,  and  he  is  marketable  at  a  younger  age  than  is 
ordinarily  true  of  the  types  of  light  horses.  If  he  is  kept  free 
from  wire  cuts  and  other  blemishes,  and  is  fat  and  well  groomed 
when  offered  for  sale,  he  should  realize  full  value.  The  carriage 
horse  or  saddler,  on  the  other  hand,  requires  months  of  handling 
in  order  to  give  him  a  good  mouth  and  develop  his  action  or 
gaits,  as  the  case  may  be.  Furthermore,  a  wire  cut  or  other 
blemish  is  much  more  serious  with  these  types  than  with  the 
drafter.  They  require  more  care  and  attention  from  birth  to 
selling  time,  and  require  a  greater  age  to  finish  them  for  market. 
It  is  also  true  that  there  are  fewer  misfits  in  breeding  draft 
horses  than  with  any  other  type  of  horse,  in  other  words,  re- 
sults are  more  certain  and  sure.  The  production  of  draft  horses 
fits  into  general  farming  better  than  the  production  of  any  of 
the  light  horse  types.  For  these  various  reasons,  the  draft 
horse  is  of  greatest  interest  to  most  farmers,  and  is  most  fre- 
quently selected  by  farmers  who  take  up  horse  breeding. 

Light  types  require  greater  skill. — Let  it  be  understood, 
however,  that  the  foregoing  arguments  are  not  intended  to 
discourage  the  breeding  of  types  other  than  the  drafter.  The 
point  is  that  carriage,  saddle,  and  roadster  horses  are  more 
difficult  to  produce  than  drafters,  and  but  few  persons,  com- 
paratively, are  qualified  to  breed  them  successfully.  The  pro- 
duction of  light  horses  requires  a  higher  order  of  skill  both  in 
breeding  and  salesmanship  than  does  the  production  of  the 
draft  horse,  and  when  this  is  supplied,  light  horse  breeding  is 
a  profitable  enterprise.  Hence  the  selection  of  the  type  to 
breed  should  be  governed  largely  by  the  ability  of  the  man  who 
is  to  supervise  the  breeding,  provided,  of  course,  he  is  to  work 
under  conditions  not  unfavorable  to  the  type  he  is  best  qualified 


462         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

to  produce.  Failures  in  horse  breeding,  as  in  most  other  things, 
usually  have  been  due  to  the  man  believing  himself  capable 
of  doing  things  for  which  he  was  not  qualified. 

Perhaps  in  no  other  field  have  so  many  breeders  found 
themselves  mistaken  regarding  their  abilities  as  in  the  breed- 
ing of  the  trotting  horse.  This  type  appeals  strongly  to  the 
majority  of  Americans,  and  many  farmers  and  others  have 
believed  that  they  knew  a  safe  and  sure  system  of  breeding 
for  speed.  Even  in  the  best  of  hands,  the  breeding  of  trotters 
is  very  doubtful  as  to  results,  and  only  a  small  percentage  of 
the  foals  ever  attain  anything  noteworthy  on  the  turf.  Speed 
is  an  elusive  quality  dependent  on  such  a  rare  combination  of 
good  qualities  in  the  animal  as  to  make  results  in  breeding  very 


Fig.  154.     A  Highly  Successful  Sire. 

Undefeated  Belgian  stallion,  Farceur,  and  eight  of  his  get.  This  group 
contains  the  first  and  second  prize  get  of  sire,  Iowa  State  Fair,  1915  and  1916; 
the  first  prize  futurity  filly  and  champion  mare  at  Iowa  in  1916;  the  world's 
champion  group  at  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition  in  1915;  the  first,  second 
and  third  prize  two-year-old  fillies  and  champion  mare  at  the  International, 
1916.  Owned  by  Mr.  Wm,  Crownover,  Hudson,  la.  Farceur  was  sold  in 
1917  for  $47,500  to  Mr.  C.  G.  Good,  Ogden,  la. 

uncertain,  and  it  should  be  understood  that  only  a  few  men 
possess  the  special  qualifications  necessary  to  success  in  breed- 
ing this  type  of  horse,  and  that  only  the  wealthy,  who  are  will- 
ing to  accept  the  pleasure  and  fascination  of  the  undertaking 
as  partial  remuneration  for  the  capital  invested,  can  ordinarily 
afford  to  take  up  this  difficult  art.  A  few  men  of  moderate 
means  have  made  a  success  with  trotters  by  selling  yearlings 
as  "prospects"  to  be  developed  in  the  hands  of  some  one  else, 
but  even  this  method  is  uncertain  as  to  results  financially. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        463 

Pony  breeding  offers  a  good  field  for  profit  to  those  who 
are  in  a  position  to  reach  the  trade  for  Shetland,  Welsh,  or  Hack- 
ney ponies.  The  breeding  of  polo  ponies,  however,  is  as  yet 
a  very  uncertain  undertaking  comparable  to  breeding  trotters. 

Selecting  a  breed. — After  the  type  of  horse  has  been  chosen, 
it  is  next  in  order  to  decide  what  breed  of  that  type  shall  be 
selected.  The  choice  of  a  breed  is  not  so  serious  or  important 
a  matter  as  the  selection  of  a  type  or  the  selection  of  the  indi- 
viduals which  are  to  compose  the  stud.  It  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  personal  fancy  of  the  breeder,  although  in  some  types 
of  horses  in  certain  localities,  one  breed  may  be  so  much  liked 
or  another  breed  so  much  disliked  as  to  make  it  advisable  for 
the  new  breeder  to  conform  to  the  choice  of  the  community, 
if  it  is  possible  to  do  so.  He  can  then  profit  from  the  exper- 
ience and  advice  of  his  neighbors,  he  will  benefit  from  a  greater 
number  of  local  sales  of  his  stock,  and  there  will  be  more  stallions 
to  select  among  when  mating  his  mares.  After  deciding  what 
type  shall  be  produced,  the  mistake  is  sometimes  made  of  select- 
ing a  breed  to  work  with  which  does  not  rightly  belong  to  that 
type.  For  example,  efforts  are  sometimes  made  to  produce 
the  carriage  type  from  trotting-bred  stock,  or  from  a  saddle 
breed,  and  while  many  excellent  heavy-harness  horses  have 
sprung  from  these  breeds,  they  have  been  largely  in  the  nature 
of  accidents  in  breeding,  and  ordinarily  they  cannot  be  pro- 
duced in  this  way  with  enough  regularity  to  make  such  a  plan 
of  breeding  advisable. 

Selecting  the  individuals. — We  now  come  to  the  matter  of 
selecting  the  individuals  which  are  to  compose  the  stud.  First 
of  all,  they  must  be  sound;  and  this  is  a  matter  to  which  many 
farmers  pay  too  little  attention.  Buyers  offer  the  best  prices 
for  sound  stock,  and  the  farmer  has  too  frequently  sold  his 
young  mares  that  were  sound,  and  has  retained  those  with 
sidebones,  ringbones,  spavins,  curbs,  etc.,  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. This  is  radically  wrong  and  a  very  short-sighted  prac- 
tice. Soundness  is  of  very  vital  importance  in  every  type  of 
horse,  and  especially  in  animals  used  for  breeding  purposes. 
The  individuals  should  also  be  true  representatives  of  the  type 
to  which  they  belong.  Whether  or  not  the  brood  mares  should 
be  purebred  depends  on  the  amount  of  capital  available  and 
on  the  type  of  horse  selected.  If  possible,  it  is  preferable  that 
they  be  purebred,  registered  mares.  However,  some  very 
profitable  work  in  producing  drafters  for  the  market  has  been  done 


464         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

with  good  grade  draft  mares.  In  such  cases,  these  mares  have 
shown  excellent  draft  type,  even  though  they  were  not  eligible 
to  registry.  Purebred  draft  mares  cost  considerably  more  to 
buy,  but  have  the  very  great  advantage  of  having  their  foals 
eligible  to  registry,  and  hence  of  greater  market  value.  In 
breeding  carriage,  saddle,  and  roadster  horses,  it  is  essential 
in  most  cases  that  purebred  mares  be  used. 

Well-developed  feminine  character  and  a  good  disposition 
are  fundamental  qualities  in  a  brood  mare,  as  such  mares  are 
usually  more  regular  breeders,  better  mothers,  and  more  easily 
handled  and  worked  than  are  mares  of  masculine  appearance 
or  mean,  vicious,  or  highly  nervous  disposition.  The  brood 
mare  should  have  a  long  underline,  and  a  deep,  full-made,  roomy 
middle. 


- 


Fig.  155.     Blood  Will  Tell. 

Grade  Shire  mares  shown  at  the  Bushnell,  111.,  horse  show  in  1914,  all 
bred  and  owned  by  Mr.  Jonas  McGrew,  Walnut  Grove,  111.  All  of  these 
mares,  and  the  dams  and  grandams  of  some  of  them,  were  sired  by  Shire 
stallions  imported  by  the  Truman  Pioneer  Stock  Farm,  Bushnell,  111. 

Well-developed  draft  fillies  may  be  bred  when  two  years 
old;  others  should  not  be  bred  until  three  years  old.  The  dura- 
tion of  pregnancy  in  mares  is  quite  variable,  but  averages  about 
340  days.  A  two-year-old  stallion  may  breed  8  or  10  mares 
in  the  season,  a  three-year-old  from  25  to  30,  and  a  four-year-old 
from  40  to  50.  The  breeding  season  lasts  from  100  to  115  days, 
and  it  is  important  not  to  use  the  stallion  too  heavily  at  any 
time.  A  two-year-old  may  safely  be  allowed  to  cover  one  mare 
every  five  days;  a  three-year-old,  three  a  week;  a  four-year-old, 
three  every  two  days;  and  a  mature  horse  should  be  limited 
usually  to  two  covers  daily,  and  perhaps  occasionally  he  may 
make  three. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        465 

A  sound,  purebred  stallion  that  is  true  to  type  and  a  good 
individual  in  every  way  is  the  only  kind  worthy  of  patronage. 
If  there  is  no  such  horse  in  the  community,  it  will  pay  to  ship 
the  mares  a  long  distance  to  reach  such  a  one.  If  possible, 
it  is  always  best  to  patronize  a  stallion  that  has  proved  him- 
self a  sure  breeder  and  a  getter  of  good  foals.  There  would  not 
be  the  great  number  of  unsound,  mongrel,  and  inferior  stallions 
standing  for  public  service  if  there  did  not  exist  a  demand  for 
them  on  the  part  of  mare  owners.  There  can  be  only  one  expla- 
nation so  far  as  the  owner  of  the  mare  is  concerned,  and  that  is 
the  saving  in  the  amount  of  the  service  fee;  but  no  more  short- 
sighted practice  can  be  followed,  it  having  been  demonstrated 
in  almost  every  community  that  the  added  value  of  the  foal 
from  a  high-class  stallion,  as  compared  with  the  foal  by  a  cheap 
horse,  repays  the  extra  service  fee  many  times  over.  It  costs 
little  more  to  raise  a  good  foal  than  an  inferior  one,  and  the 
foal  by  the  cheap  stallion  is  not  ordinarily  a  profit  maker.  So 
many  breeders  have  shown  a  lack  of  judgment  in  this  matter, 
and  horse  stocks  have  deteriorated  to  such  an  extent  in  some 
states  on  account  of  the  large  number  of  mares  bred  to  cheap 
horses,  that  stallion  laws  have  been  enacted  which  debar  un- 
sound stallions  from  public  service,  and  require  that  placards 
be  posted  on  the  stable  door  telling  whether  the  stallion  is  a 
purebred,  cross-bred,  grade,  or  mongrel.  Every  state  needs  a 
law  of  this  kind,  modified  to  suit  its  needs. 

Results  of  careless  breeding. — Another  evil  in  need  of 
remedy  is  the  too  common  practice  of  mixing  the  types  of  horses. 
Heavy  mares  are  mated  with  trotting  stallions  in  order  to  pro- 
duce an  animal  for  road  use,  or  with  no  particular  idea  in  the 
mind  of  the  mare  owner  except  to  "get  a  colt."  Light-weight, 
light-boned  mares,  without  any  semblance  of  draft  qualities, 
are  mated  with  draft  stallions  in  the  hope  of  getting  a  draft 
foal,  or  again  simply  to  "get  a  colt."  The  results  of  such  breed- 
ing are  to  be  seen  on  every  hand  in  the  country,  and  a  visit  to 
any  large  horse  market  reveals  the  fact  that  a  large  percentage 
of  the  animals  offered  for  sale  are  of  no  particular  type  or  market 
class,  because  they  have  a  variegated  ancestry,  the  result  of 
indiscriminate  crossing  of  heavy  and  light  horses.  One  is  at  a 
loss  sometimes  to  know  by  what  method  some  market  offerings 
were  produced.  The  result  is  a  lot  of  cheap  horses  adapted  to 
no  particular  work,  which  net  the  producer  a  loss  in  most  cases 
and  seldom  yield  a  profit.  Breeders  must  learn  to  stick  to  type. 


466        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  experience  of  all  successful  horse  breeders  teaches  no  other 
lesson  more  forcibly  than  this. 

Pedigree  not  always  an  indication  of  merit. — In  the  minds 
of  many  people,  the  words  "purebred/'  "registered,"  and  "im- 
ported" have  a  charm  much  greater  than  they  deserve.  Far 
too  often,  glaring  faults  of  individuality  or  even  serious  un- 
soundness  are  passed  with  light  criticism  because  the  animal 
in  question  is  eligible  to  one  or  more  of  these  fascinating  names. 
After  all,  one  must  conclude  that  there  is  something  in  a  name. 
It  is  a  fact  that  some  purebred  horses  are  practically  worthless 
for  breeding  purposes.  If  an  animal  is  purebred  and  registered, 
its  value  is  very  greatly  increased,  provided  it  is  a  good  indi- 
vidual of  useful  type;  but  if  the  animal  is  decidedly  faulty  in 
conformation,  or  has  serious  unsoundness,  its  pedigree  and 
registration  number  are  of  small  account,  and  the  animal  is  of 
little  or  no  value  for  breeding  purposes. 

Feed  and  care. — Every  successful  breeder  is  a  good  feeder 
and  caretaker,  for  no  matter  how  excellent  the  ancestry  of  a 
foal  may  be,  its  inherited  good  qualities  cannot  reveal  them- 
selves unless  the  foal  is  provided  with  good  quarters  and  plenty 
of  the  right  feed  with  which  to  build  up  and  grow.  Feed  and 
care  are  fully  as  important  as  parentage  in  producing  good 
horses. 

Summary. — In  conclusion,  therefore,  follow  the  intensive 
rather  than  the  extensive  plan  of  horse  production;  select  the 
type  to  breed  after  careful  study  of  the  situation;  select  a  breed 
which  truly  belongs  to  that  type;  select  sound  individuals  pos- 
sessing a  high  degree  of  individual  excellence;  breed  to  a  strictly 
high-class,  purebred  stallion,  regardless  of  the  amount  of  his 
service  fee;  if  there  is  no  such  stallion  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood, ship  the  mares  whatever  distance  is  necessary  to  reach 
a  high-class  horse;  patronize  a  tried  and  proven  sire  if  possible; 
stick  to  a  definite  line  of  breeding — do  not  mix  the  types  indis- 
criminately; raise  a  class  of  foals  that  merit  plenty  of  good  feed 
and  care,  and  supply  the  same;  be  conservative  in  your  judg- 
ment and  appreciative  of  the  fact  that  the  breeding  of  horses  is 
an  enterprise  which  repays  careful  study  of  all  departments  of 
the  business. 

A  Few  Statistics. 

The  United  States,  with  21,534,000  horses  and  4,925,000 
mules  on  January  1,  1919,  has  over  25  per  cent,  of  the  world's 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        467 

horses  and  over  50  per  cent,  of  the  world 's  mules.  During  the 
World  War,  or  from  1914  to  1918  inclusive,  the  United  States 
exported  1,054,000  horses,  valued  at  $219,459,000,  and  357,255 
mules,  valued  at  $70,926,000. 

Spain  is  the  only  country  which  has  more  mules  than  horses. 

The  average  value  of  horses  in  the  United  States  in  1919 
was  $98.48,  while  the  average  value  of  mules  was  $135.59.  These 
figures  include  all  ages.  Utah  was  the  only  state  in  1919  which 
reported  a  higher  average  valuation  for  horses  than  for  mules. 

Iowa,  with  1,567,000  head,  had  more  horses  in  1919  than 
any  other  state.  The  other  leading  states  in  order  of  rank  were 
Illinois,  Texas,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Missouri,  Minnesota,  Ohio, 
North  Dakota,  and  South  Dakota.  These  ten  states  have  a 
little  more  than  half  of  the  horses  of  the  country. 

The  leading  mule-owning  states  are  Texas,  Missouri,  Georgia, 
Mississippi,  Arkansas,  Alabama,  Oklahoma,  Tennessee,  Kansas, 
and  Kentucky,  in  the  order  given,  while  no  mules  were  reported 
in  1919  from  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut.  Six  states  own  more  mules 
than  horses,  these  being  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Arkansas. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 
THE  MULE. 

The  various  breeds  of  the  ass  belong  to  one  species  known 
as  Equus  asinus.  The  various  breeds  of  the  horse  belong  to  a 
distinct  species  known  as  Equus  caballus.  The  male  ass  is 
called  a  jack,  and  the  female  a  jennet.  The  cross  of  a  jack  on 
a  mare  produces  a  hybrid  known  as  a  mule.  The  cross  of  a 
stallion  on  a  jennet  produces  a  hybrid  known  as  a  hinny.  Al- 
though it  is  often  stated  that  the  hinny  and  mule  differ  in  ap- 
pearance, the  hinny  tending  to  be  more  like  a  horse  and  the 
mule  tending  more  toward  the  type  of  a  jack,  there  is  no  differ- 
ence in  type  and  appearance  between  them.  Very  few  hinnies 
are  produced,  as  jennets  are  in  such  demand  for  producing  jacks 
that  they  are  seldom  bred  to  stallions.  Mules  and  hinnies  do 
not  breed,  being  infertile.  As  the  saying  goes,  "the  mule  has 
no  pride  of  ancestry,  and  no  hope  of  posterity." 

Breeds  of  jacks. — A  number  of  breeds  have  been  imported 
to  the  United  States,  including  the  Catalonian,  Poitou,  Maltese, 
Andalusian,  Majorcan,  and  Italian.  American  breeders  have 
made  various  crosses  of  these  breeds  and  have  developed  by 
selection  the  so-called  American  Jack,  which  may  be  considered 
a  distinct  breed. 

Best  type  of  jack. — The  best  jack  for  mule  breeding  is  one 
having  as  much  size,  weight,  and  substance  as  possible,  without 
coarseness.  He  should  stand  16  hands  or  over.  Very  few 
jacks  exceed  16-1  hands  and  1150  pounds.  He  should  be  lengthy 
and  wide  in  form,  with  a  straight,  strong  top,  a  well-shaped 
head,  large  and  well-set  ears,  straight  legs  showing  plenty  of 
bone,  feet  of  good  size,  shape,  and  texture,  and  a  rather  fine, 
glossy  coat  of  hair.  He  should  be  active  and  show  considerable 
style  and  spirit.  The  best  color  is  black  with  light  nose  and 
belly,  as  a  jack  of  this  color  will  get  the  best-colored  mules  out 
of  mares  of  all  colors. 

Best  mares  for  mule  breeding. — Mares  standing  15-3  to  16-1 
handstand  showing  some  evidence  of  draft  blood,  yet  having  good 
finish  and  quality,  produce  the  best  mules.  These  mares  weigh 
from  1350  to  1500  pounds.  The  mare  should  have  a  roomy 
middle,  and  she  should  also  have  large,  wide,  and  good  feet. 

468 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


469 


The  mule. — Big,  heavy  mules  bring  the  highest  price  if  they 
show  smoothness  and  good  quality.  The  very  best  stand  16-3  to 
17-2  hands  and  weigh  1600  to  1700  pounds.  Few  reach  1800 
pounds.  Mules  do  not  weigh  as  heavy  for  their  height  as  horses. 
Mules  are  judged  by  practically  the  same  standards  as  horses. 

The  mule  and  horse  compared. — Mules  are  more  sure- 
footed than  horses,  pick  their  way  more  carefully,  and  look  out 
for  themselves  better  than  a  horse.  Mules  are  more  intelligent 
than  horses,  and  are  more  apt  to  learn  to  refuse  or  avoid  hard 


Fig.  156.     Correct  Type  in  the  Jack. 

Limestone  Monarch,  Champion  at  the  Missouri  State  Fair  in  1912,  and 
Reserve  Champion  at  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition  in  1915.  Height  15-3 
hands;  weight,  1212  pounds.  Bred  and  owned  by  Mr.  L.  M.  Monsees,  Pettis 
County,  Mo. 

or  unpleasant  work.  When  a  mule  gets  tangled  up  in  wire  or 
into  some  other  predicament,  he  usually  stands  quietly  until 
released,  whereas  a  horse  often  becomes  excited  and  struggles 
even  though  he  lacerates  his  legs  and  body  and  punishes  himself 
very  severely.  Mules  usually  accept  their  lot  and  plod  along 
at  their  work  without  wasting  energy  in  fretting  or  nervousness, 
while  worry  rather  than  work  often  keeps  a  horse  thin.  Mules 
are  less  sensitive  than  horses;  they  accept  more  abuse  and  rough 
handling,  and  get  along  better  under  an  incompetent  driver. 


470        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Mules  stand  hot  weather  better  than  horses.  Mules  are  less 
subject  to  digestive  troubles  and  founder.  A  mule  will  not 
gorge  himself  as  a  horse  often  does  if  he  gets  into  the  feed  bin 
or  has  access  to  too  much  feed.  The  mule's  foot  has  a  very- 
thick,  strong  wall  and  sole  which  enables  the  foot  to  endure 
the  shock  and  concussion  on  hard  pavements  particularly  well. 
Mules  are  less  subject  to  foot  troubles  which  cause  lameness, 
and  their  feet  are  less  affected  by  continuous  shoeing.  Mules 
are  usually  stabled  more  cheaply  than  horses.  They  are  often 


Fig.  157.     Prize- Winning  Mules. 

Champion  pair  of  mules  at  the  Iowa  State  Fair,  1915,  six  years  old,  weigh- 
ing 1600  and  1620  pounds.  The  off  mule  (on  the  left  of  the  picture)  was 
champion  mule  of  the  show.  Owned  by  F.  L.  Hutson  &  Son,  State  Center,  la. 

kept  in  sheds  or  pens  in  which  a  number  are  turned  loose  to- 
gether. Aged  and  second-hand  mules  sell  better  than  aged 
and  second-hand  horses.  Mules  require  less  veterinary  atten- 
tion and  are  less  often  incapacitated  for  work  than  horses.  Mules 
once  worked  together  as  a  team  are  harder  to  separate  than 
horses.  This  may  be  an  advantage,  or  it  may  in  some  cases 
prove  a  detriment.  Mules  are  more  uniform  in  form  and  color 
than  horses,  and  are  easier  to  match  into  teams. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        471 

On  the  other  hand,  the  mule  has  some  shortcomings  as 
compared  to  the  horse.  He  has  not  the  weight  for  the  heaviest 
draft  work.  Because  of  the  small  size  of  his  foot  he  is  more 
apt  to  slip  on  pavements  at  a  hard  pull.  Furthermore,  the 
mule's  habit  of  pushing  directly  forward  against  the  collar, 
instead  of  crouching  and  lifting  like  a  draft  horse  at  a  hard  pull, 
also  results  in  slipping  on  pavements.  Mules  do  not  work  well 
in  soft  ground.  The  small  foot  of  the  mule  does  not  bear  him 
up,  and  he  is  usually  much  more  timid  under  these  conditions 
than  is  the  horse.  Mules  will  avoid  a  muddy  spot  or  puddle 
of  water  if  they  can.  The  wilfulness  and  trickiness  of  many 
mules  and  their  lack  of  spirit  makes  it  less  of  a  pleasure  to  drive 
the  average  mule  than  the  average  horse.  The  mule  has  a 
harder  mouth.  Too  often  it  takes  a  gag  bit  to  hold  him  and  a 
black-snake  whip  to  make  him  go.  Mules  are  not  adapted 
to  use  in  the  artillery,  as  they  are  gun-shy,  usually  lack  speed, 
and  do  not  respond  to  commands  quick  enough.  They  are  not 
so  dependable  as  horses  in  an  emergency. 

Mr.  George  E.  Wentworth,  Superintendent  of  the  Chicago 
Union  Stock  Yards  Horse  Market,  in  an  interesting  article* 
entitled  "Why  Use  Adulterated  Horses?"  discusses  the  place 
of  the  mule  in  warfare  as  follows:  "They  say  the  mule  can  stand 
more  heat,  but  cavalry  regiments  in  South  America,  South 
Africa,  Arabia,  India,  China,  or  Morocco  are  not  mounted 
upon  the  sure-footed,  swift,  enduring,  and  patient  mule.  The 
Cossacks  did  not  pursue  Napoleon  from  Moscow  on  the  backs 
of  mules,  nor  did  the  men  of  Marion  and  Sumpter,  Stuart  or 
Sheridan  win  their  victories  astride  the  progeny  of  a  jack.  The 
Crusaders  panoplied  in  full  armor,  fought  Saladin  and  his  Emirs 
over  the  dry  and  arid  dusty  deserts  of  Palestine  mounted  upon 
Norman  and  Arabian  horses.  Armies  trust  live  weight  to 
horses,  dead  weight  to  mules." 

As  mules  do  not  breed,  there  is  no  opportunity  for  profit 
to  the  farmer  from  this  source.  The  mule's  inability  to  breed 
is  something  of  an  advantage  in  the  city  and  in  the  army,  as 
there  is  always  the  danger  of  a  mare  being  in  foal  when  she 
is  purchased,  and  if  she  is  it  causes  trouble  and  annoyance  in 
a  city  stable  or  in  the  army;  she  must  either  be  sold  or  kept 
idle  for  a  time.  From  all  standpoints,  however,  the  mule's 
failure  to  breed  is  a  detriment  as  compared  to  the  horse. 


'The  Horseman  &  Spirit  of  the  Times,  Aug.  4,  1914. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 
MARKET  CLASSES  OF  MULES. 

The  mule  market  is  of  more  recent  origin  than  the  horse 
market,  but  has  developed  into  a  large  business.  Whereas 
horses  are  usually  sold  at  public  auction,  mules  are  usually 
sold  at  private  sale,  being  sold  singly,  in  pairs,  or  in  any  num- 
ber to  suit  the  needs  of  the  buyer.  When  large  numbers  are 
wanted  of  a  uniform  height  and  weight,  they  are  most  often 
sold  at  a  fixed  price  per  head  and  the  salesman  gives  a  guarantee 
as  to  age,  soundness,  and  other  requirements.  When  an  order 
is  placed  for  mules  of  different  sizes  or  for  different  market 
classes,  they  will  ordinarily  be  figured  individually,  or  in  pairs. 

Market  requirements. — The  market  requirements  for  mules 
are  similar  to  those  for  horses.  They  should  be  sound,  of  a 
desirable  age  and  color,  well  fleshed,  and  sleek  in  coat;  and 
should  possess  abundant  quality  and  a  strong  conformation. 
They  should  also  have  good  action.  These  requirements  are 
discussed  in  detail  below. 

Soundness. — Mules  should  be  serviceably  sound.  Blem- 
ishes are  objectionable,  though  not  in  the  same  degree  as  with 
horses.  They  should  be  sound  in  eyes  and  wind,  and  should 
be  good  workers.  The  most  common  and  serious  unsound- 
nesses  are  large  spavins,  puffs,  sidebones,  defective  eyes,  and 
unsound  wind. 

Age. — The  most  desired  age  is  from  four  to  eight  years; 
however,  there  are  exceptions  in  some  classes,  as  noted  below. 

Condition. — The  appearance  is  greatly  improved  if  mules 
are  marketed  carrying  flesh  enough  to  round  out  their  middles. 
Sleek,  glossy  coats  of  hair  are  often  estimated  to  be  worth  ten 
dollars.  The  flesh  should  be  smooth,  not  lumpy  or  roily.  The 
value  of  flesh  on  mules  is  about  equal  to  that  on  draft  horses— 
which  is  twenty-five  cents  per  pound  with  a  good  grade  of  horses. 

Quality.— Refinement  of  head,  hair,  bone,  joints,  and  hoofs 
is  an  evidence  of  good  bone  and  wearing  qualities. 

Conformation. — All  mules  should  have  a  large  chest,  long 
shoulder,  deep  barrel,  straight  short  back  with  as  much  spring 
of  rib  as  possible,  a  broad  loin,  and  a  long  level  croup.  The 
underline  should  be  comparatively  straight,  the  rear  flank  well 

472 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


473 


let  down,  and  the  thighs  and  quarters  heavily  muscled.  The 
legs  should  evidence  both  substance  and  quality,  the  feet  should 
be  large,  wide  at  the  heel,  and  sound,  and  the  hoofs  should  be 
smooth.  The  form,  muscling,  and  set  of  legs  should  be  ap- 
proximately the  same  as  in  horses.  The  head  of  the  mule  is 
a  good  index  of  his  disposition  and  temperament;  it  should  be 
of  good  size,  yet  clean-cut  as  an  evidence  of  quality.  The  fore- 
head should  be  broad  and  flat,  and  the  nose  slightly  Roman, 


Fig.  158.     High-Class  Draft  Mules. 

which  indicates  stamina  and  strength.  If  the  head  is  as  de- 
scribed, the  animal  is  usually  considered  to  be  a  more  reliable 
and  agreeable  worker  than  one  not  possessing  these  character- 
istics. The  ears  should  be  long,  thin,  tapering,  and  carried 
erect;  the  neck  should  be  long,  with  moderate  crest,  and  should 
join  the  shoulder  smoothly.  The  mane  should  be  reached,  and 
the  tail  clipped  in  the  regular  manner  with  not  too  short  a  bush. 
Color. — All  mules  of  solid  color,  except  white,  are  in  good 
demand,  though  color  is  not  an  important  factor.  Dapple 


474         TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

grays  are  popular  in  the  draft  class,  but  as  a  general  rule,  bays, 
browns,  and  chestnuts  are  most  desirable,  while  flea-bitten  grays 
are  discriminated  against. 

Action.— Action  counts  for  very  little  in  market  mules. 
They  should  show  vigor  and  energy  in  their  movements  and 
be  straight-line  movers.  They  should  not  be  lame  or  crampy, 
nor  defective  in  action  because  of  badly  set  legs. 

The  market  classes  of  mules  are  determined  by  the  use 
to  which  they  are  put,  but  in  order  for  a  class  to  exist  there  must 


Fig.  159.     Mining  or  Pack  Mule. 

be  a  demand  for  considerable  numbers  of  a  definite  type.  In 
the  St.  Louis  market,  which  is  the  largest  mule  market  in  the 
world,  there  are  six  market  classes  which  are  as  follows: 

Height  ,    Weight 

Classes                                                    Hands  Pounds  ^ 

MINING  MULES .  .                                      ..  12      to  16  600  to  1350 

COTTON  MULES .  .                                       . .  13-2  to  15-2  750  to  1100 

SUGAR  MULES..                                           ..16      to  17  1150  to  1300 

FARM  MULES . .                                             ..  15-2  to  16  900  to  1250 

DRAFT  MULES .  .  .16      to  17-2  1200  to  1600 

f  Wheel  mules 15-3  to  16-1  1150  to  1300 

ARMY  MULES. . .     Lead  mules 15      to  15-3  1000  to  1150 

[Pack  and  riding  mules   14-2  to  15-2  950  to  1200 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        475 

Mining  mules. — These  are  purchased  for  use  in  mines, 
principally  to  haul  cars  of  ore  or  coal  to  the  hoisting  shafts. 
They  are  rugged,  deep  bodied,  short  legged,  compactly  built, 
and  have  heavy  bone  and  large  feet.  They  stand  from  12  to 
16  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  600  to  1350  pounds.  Those 
used  down  in  mines  are  termed  "pit  mules,"  and  the  height 
of  these  is  limited  by  the  depth  of  the  vein  worked.  Ages  from 
5  to  8  years  are  most  preferred,  but  a  well-developed  four-year- 
old,  or  a  well-preserved  ten-year-old,  is  often  accepted.  Geld- 
ings are  much  preferred  to  mare  mules  for  this  trade.  Bad 
wire  marks  on  the  feet  are  severely  discriminated  against,  as 


Fig.  160.     Cotton  or  Lead  Mule. 

they  are  likely  to  become  sore  from  contact  with  sulphur  and 
other  chemicals  in  the  mine.  The  demand  for  miners  is  strong 
and  constant  throughout  the  year,  and  comes  from  all  sections 
where  mines  are  operated. 

Cotton  mules. — Cotton  mules  are  very  similar  to  mining 
mules  in  size,  but  are  lighter  boned  and  not  so  compactly  built. 
They  should  have  small,  neat  heads,  and  possess  much  quality 
and  finish.  Their  feet  are  smaller  and  bodies  proportionately 
lighter.  Cotton  mules  stand  from  13-2  to  15-2  hands  high, 
and  weigh  from  750  to  1100  pounds.  They  are  most  desired 
from  3  to  7  years  old,  but  may  find  ready  sale  up  to  12  years  of 
age.  Mare  mules  sell  better  than  geldings  in  this  class.  The 
trade  begins  about  the  first  of  September  and  continues  good 


476        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

throughout  the  fall  and  winter  months,  then  gradually  decreases 
until  after  the  cotton  crop  is  planted,  or  about  April.  From 
this  time  until  the  following  fall,  the  demand  is  light.  Cotton 
mules  are  used  by  cotton  growers  to  plant,  cultivate,  and  harvest 
the  cotton  crop,  but  a  great  many  such  mules  are  also  taken  to 
cities  for  use  on  delivery  wagons  and  other  purposes. 

Sugar  mules. — These  are  mules  especially  adapted  for  use 
on  the  sugar  farms  of  Georgia,  Louisiana,  and  other  southern 
states.  Sugar  mules  are  taller,  larger,  more  breedy  looking, 
better  finished,  and  have  heavier  bone  than  cotton  mules.  The 
feet  should  be  large  in  proportion  to  the  bone.  They  stand 


Fig.  161.     Sugar  Mule. 

from  16  to  17  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1150  to  1300  pounds. 
Mare  mules  from  3  to  6  years  old  are  most  desired  for  this  trade. 
As  sugar  mules  are  larger  and  possess  more  quality  and  finish 
than  cotton  mules,  they  sell  for  a  little  more  money.  The  trade 
begins  in  August,  and  usually  ends  in  February.  They  are  in 
greatest  demand  in  September,  October,  and  November. 

Farm  mules. — Mules  purchased  for  use  on  farms  in  the 
central  states  are  known  on  the  market  as  farm  mules.  They 
are  less  uniform  in  type  than  the  other  classes,  as  farmers  like 
to  buy  animals  that  show  promise  of  further  development. 
Farm  mules  are  usually  from  15-2  to  16  hands  high,  and  from 
3  to  6  years  old,  four-year-olds  being  preferred.  They  are  often 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        477 

plain  looking  and  thin  in  flesh,  though  possessing  good  con- 
stitution, bone  and  feet,  and  showing  indications  of  a  good  out- 
come when  well  fed  and  cared  for.  Many  of  them  are  worked 
for  a  time,  then  fattened  and  returned  to  the  market.  When 
resold,  they  may  be  taken  as  miners,  sugar  mules,  or  cotton 
mules.  The  strongest  demand  for  farm  mules  occurs  during 
the  late  winter  and  spring  months. 

Draft  mules. — Draft  mules  are  large,  heavy-boned,  heavy- 
set  mules,  with  plenty  of  quality.  They  are  purchased  to  do 
heavy  teaming  work.  Many  are  used  by  contractors  doing 
railroad  grading,  and  consequently  they  are  often  spoken  of  as 


Fig.  162.     Farm  or  Wheel  Mule. 

railroad  mules.  They  are  especially  demanded  for  heavy  team- 
ing work  in  cities  in  warm  climates,  where  they  are  preferred 
to  horses  because  they  are  said  to  be  hardier,  able  to  stand  the 
hot  sun  better,  and  not  subject  to  as  many  ills.  Draft  mules 
stand  from  16  to  17-2  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1200  to  1600 
pounds  and  upwards.  They  should  combine  weight  and  strength. 
They  should  be  large,  rugged,  heavily  boned,  and  strongly 
muscled.  The  feet  should  be  large,  the  back  short  and  strong, 
the  middle  deep  and  closely  coupled,  the  croup  fairly  level,  and 
the  thighs  and  quarters  massive.  They  are  most  desired  from 
5  to  8  years  old,  and  little  preference  is  shown  regarding  sex. 
The  demand  is  strong  and  quite  constant  the  year  round. 


478 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Army  mules.— The  demand  for  mules  in  the  army  is  very 
limited  and  the  class  is  not  important  except  in  time  of  war. 
In  the  recent  World  War,  the  American  mule  played  a  very 
important  part,  and  large  numbers  were  purchased  at  the  var- 
ious markets.  Three  classes  are  required,  these  being  wheel 
mules  and  lead  mules  used  in  four-in-hand  teams  on  army  wagons 
for  transport  work,  and  pack  and  riding  mules. 

Wheel  mules. — Government  specifications  call  for  mules 
that  are  "sound,  well  bred,  and  of  a  superior  class;  of  a  kind 
disposition,  free  from  vicious  habits,  gentle,  and  well  broken  to 
harness,  with  free  and  springy  action  at  the  walk  and  trot;  and 
otherwise  to  conform  to  the  following  description:  A  mare  or 
gelding  of  uniform  and  hardy  color,  in  good  condition,  from  3  to 


Fig.  163.     Small  Pair  of  Wheel  Mules  to  Army  Wagon. 

8  years  old.  Three-year-old  mules  will  be  purchased  only  when 
exceptionally  fine  individuals."  Wheel  mules  stand  15-3  to 
16-1  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1150  to  1300  pounds. 

Lead  mules. — These  are  of  the  same  general  description  as 
the  wheelers,  but  are  smaller  animals.  They  should  stand  15 
to  15-3  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1000  to  1150  pounds. 

Pack  and  riding  mules. — Pack  and  riding  mules  stand 
from  14-2  to  15-2  hands,  and  weigh  from  950  to  1200  pounds. 
They  must  be  of  stocky  build,  with  a  stout  neck,  short,  strong 
back,  good  coupling,  large  deep  barrel,  and  good  feet  and  legs, 
with  ample  bone.  The  pack  mules  must  be  particularly  deep 
in  the  middle  and  strong  backed,  as  they  carry  a  long  pack 
saddle  which  fits  well  down  on  the  sides  of  the  mule,  and  they 
carry  from  300  to  350  pounds.  Pack  mules  are  used  for  trans- 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         479 

port  work  in  very  rough  or  wooded  country  where  wagons  can- 
not be  used.  The  demand  for  these  mules  is  limited. 

Plugs. — These  are  worn  out,  cheap  mules  that  have  but 
little  value.  They  are  usually  unsound  in  one  or  more  respects, 
very  plain  and  rough  in  form,  and  many  are  of  advanced  age. 

Export  mules. — The  export  trade  in  mules  has  increased 
during  recent  years.  Large  shipments  have  been  made  to 
South  Africa,  Philippine  Islands,  and  Cuba.  The  size  and  type 
of  these  mules  varies,  depending  on  the  use  to  which  they  are 
put  and  the  country  to  which  they  are  sent.  Some  are  used 
for  army  service,  some  for  agricultural  purposes,  some  for  heavy 
teaming,  and  some  in  mines.  Hence  the  term  "export  mule" 
is  a  trade  name  which  is  not  restricted  to  any  particular  kind 
of  mules. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 
UNSOUNDNESS  IN  THE  HORSE. 

Soundness  is  a  very  vital  factor  in  determining  the  value 
of  a  horse,  and  a  knowledge  of  unsoundness  is  very  essential  to 
success  in  breeding.  Brief  description  of  the  most  common  un- 
soundnesses  has  been  deferred  until  the  close  of  the  discussion  of 
horses  in  order  that  the  student  may  learn  to  fix  his  attention, 
first  of  all,  on  type.  The  matter  of  soundness,  while  important, 
is  often  overemphasized  by  beginners.  Presented  here  at  the 
close,  such  information  should  serve  as  an  important  supple- 
ment to  preceding  discussions  of  the  types  and  market  classes 
of  horses  and  mules. 

If  a  horse  is  unsound,  his  unsoundness  may  be  accounted 
for  in  one  or  more  ways:  (1)  he  may  have  had  a  natural  weak- 
ness in  conformation  or  structure  which  predisposed  him  to  the 
unsoundness;  (2)  he  may  have  been  strong  in  conformation, 
but  forced  to  do  extreme  labor  which  was  beyond  the  power  of 
the  animal  machine  to  endure;  (3)  the  unsoundness  may  be  the 
result  of  a  bruise,  blow,  cut,  or  other  injury;  (4)  unsoundness 
may  result  following  a  diseased  condition  of  some  part  of  the 
body,  and  (5j  lack  of  proper  care,  as,  for  example,  failure  to  keep 
the  feet  in  proper  balance  so  as  to  distribute  the  weight  and 
wear  equally  over  the  various  parts  of  the  foot  and  leg,  may  bring 
on  unsoundness.  In  the  horse  for  work,  it  matters  little  which  of 
the  above  explanations  applies;  he  is  unsound,  and  the  horse  mar- 
ket fixes  his  value  according  to  the  nature  of  the  unsoundness,  with- 
out regard  to  the  reason  why  the  horse  has  it.  In  the  horse  in- 
tended for  breeding  purposes  only,  unsoundness  should  not  be  con- 
sidered a  serious  detriment  unless  it  is  explained  by  the  first  of  the 
possibilities  listed  above.  For  example,  it  is  wiser  to  breed  to  a 
horse  having  a  naturally  strong  hock  which,  because  of  accident 
or  extreme  work,  has  developed  a  bone  spavin,  than  it  is  to  breed 
to  a  sound  horse  having  a  weakly  formed  hock  which  is  free 
from  bone  spavin  only  because  it  has  never  been  put  to  the  test 
of  even  moderate  work.  It  is  often  difficult,  however,  to  de- 
termine with  accuracy  the  reason  for  an  unsoundness,  and  in  all 
such  doubtful  cases  the  unsoundness  should  be  looked  upon 
with  suspicion  and  the  horse  rejected  for  breeding  purposes. 

480 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        481 

Certain  unsoundnesses  are  ordinarily  referred  to  as  "heredi- 
tary," on  account  of  their  marked  tendency  to  reappear  in  suc- 
ceeding generations.  More  correctly,  however,  it  is  some  weak- 
ness of  conformation  that  is  transmitted  which  predisposes  the 
members  of  the  family  to  one  or  more  unsoundnesses.  Con- 
siderable difference  of  opinion  exists  among  well-informed  per- 
sons as  to  the  hereditary  transmission  of  some  unsoundnesses. 

A  number  of  minor  troubles  which  are  not  unsoundnesses 
are  here  given  brief  mention,  because  of  the  frequency  with 
which  they  are  met  and  to  satisfy  curiosity  regarding  them. 
Treatment  is  briefly  mentioned  in  some  cases  for  a  similar  reason. 
Many  minor  troubles  are  important  because  they  blemish  a 
horse.  A  blemish  merely  detracts  from  the  appearance  of  an 
animal,  whereas  an  unsoundness  interferes  with  his  working 
capacity.  Many  unsoundnesses  are  blemishes  as  well.  A 
study  of  the  ills  to  which  the  horse  is  heir  shows  that  his  eyes, 
legs,  and  wind  are  the  seats  of  unsoundness. 

Blindness. — Any  defect  of  sight  is  a  serious  defect  in  a 
horse,  and  eye  trouble  always  furnishes  grounds  for  rejecting 
horses  for  unsoundness.  Inspecting  a  horse  for  blindness  re- 
quires expert  knowledge  of  the  diseases  of  the  eye,  and,  although 
the  average  horseman  can  in  many  cases  discover  defective 
eyes,  no  horse  is  safely  passed  as  sound  in  eyes  except  by  a  well- 
qualified  veterinarian.  Severe  weeping,  partially  closed  eye- 
lids, sunken  eyes,  inability  to  bear  strong  light,  a  cloudy  ap- 
pearance of  the  cornea,  unnatural  or  dull  color,  failure  of  the 
iris  to  contract  to  a  considerable  degree  when  brought  from 
darkness  to  light,  too  active  play  of  the  ears,  failure  to  blink 
when  an  object  is  passed  close  to  the  eye — these  and  many 
other  conditions  give  evidence  of  defective  vision.  (See  also 
cataract  and  periodic  ophthalmia.) 

Blood  spavin. — Blood  spavin  is  situated  in  front  and  to 
the  inside  of  the  hock,  and  is  merely  a  varicose  or  dilated  con- 
dition of  the  vein  passing  over  that  region.  It  occurs  directly 
over  the  point  where  the  bog  spavin  is  found,  and  is  some- 
times confused  with  the  latter.  It  constitutes  a  blemish  rather 
than  an  unsoundness. 

Bog  spavin. — This  is  a  round,  smooth,  well-defined  swell- 
ing in  front  and  a  little  inward  of  the  hock.  On  pressure  it 
disappears  to  reappear  on  the  outside  and  just  behind  the  hock. 
It  is  caused  by  a  weakness  in  the  synovial  sacs  of  the  joint, 
accompanied  by  a  hyper-secretion  of  synovial  fluid  or  joint  oil. 


482        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Bog  spavins  are  more  often  blemishes,  rather  than  unsound- 
nesses.  They  are  classed  as  the  latter  only  when  they  are  well 
developed  or  cause  lameness.  Slight  cases  are  described  as 
merely  "a  little  full  in  the  hocks."  Treatment  consists  of  rest, 
blistering,  cauterization,  and  the  use  of  pressure  pads  and  pecu- 
liar bandages. 

Bone  spavin. — This  is  a  bony  growth  of  variable  size  in 
the  hock,  which  may  or  may  not  make  itself  visible  on  the  ex- 
terior. It  most  often  occurs  at  the  inner  and  lower  border 
of  the  hock,  but  may  arise  on  the  upper  part,  or  on  the  outside 
of  the  hock.  In  some  cases,  no  outward  signs  of  spavin  are 
perceptible;  these  are  called  "occult"  spavins.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  mistake  a  prominent  development  of  the  inner 
and  lower  border  of  the  hock,  natural  in  some  animals,  for  a 


Fig.  164.     Bog  Spavin. 

A,  Bog  spavin;  B,  sound  hock. 

spavin.    Hocks  that  are  narrow  or  tied  in  below  are  subject  to 
bone  spavin,  as  are  also  those  of  coarse  structure. 

Bone  spavins  affect  one  or  more  of  the  six  bones  of  the 
hock.  The  spavin  usually  represents  an  effort  on  the  part  of 
nature  to  repair  the  joint.  Spavins  are  caused  by  sprains,  by 
violent  efforts  in  jumping,  galloping,  trotting,  or  pulling,  by 
slipping  or  sliding,  and  other  similar  causes.  This  is  classed 
as  an  hereditary  unsoundness.  It  is  one  of  the  most  serious 
unsoundnesses  of  horses;  it  causes  lameness  and  stiffens  the 
joint.  As  with  sidebones  and  ringbones,  the  size  of  the  spavin 
is  not  a  safe  index  of  its  seriousness.  An  excellent  test  for 
spavin  lameness  consists  in  lifting  the  affected  leg  off  the  ground 
for  one  or  two  minutes,  holding  the  foot  high  so  as  to  flex  all 
the  joints.  Then  start  the  animal  off  in  a  trot,  when  the  lame- 
ness will  be  greatly  intensified  if  it  is  caused  by  spavin.  Treat- 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


483 


ment  consists  of  complete  rest  for  a  month  or  more,  blistering, 
the  use  of  proper  medicaments,  firing,  and  special  operations 
on  the  joint.  Firing  produces  a  small  scar,  and  when  this  is 
present  the  spavin  is  called  a  "jack." 

Broken  wind  or  heaves. — This  condition  is  denoted  by  a 
characteristic  hollow  cough,  short,  and  something  like  a  grunt, 
which  once  heard  is  easily  recognized  a  second  time.  Inspira- 
tion is  performed  normally,  but  expiration  is  abnormal,  being 
double,  or  what  is  commonly  called  the  "double  lift."  The 
first  portion  of  the  expiration  expels  the  air  as  normally,  and 
the  second  apparently  squeezes  the  remainder  of  the  air  from 
the  lungs  in  a  gradual  manner,  seemingly  with  more  or  less 
voluntary  exertion.  When  such  an  animal  is  put  to  work, 
there  is  also  a  wheezing  noise  with  the  breathing.  From  a 
commercial  standpoint,  a  broken-winded  horse  has  practically 


Fig.  165.     Bone  Spavin. 

A,  Bone  spavin;  B,  sound  hock. 

no  value,  yet  he  may  continue  to  work  fairly  well.  The  cough 
is  sometimes  disguised  by  unprincipled  persons  through  the 
administration  of  such  substances  as  shot  and  grease;  but  this 
is  only  temporary.  The  abnormal  breathing  cannot  be  con- 
cealed. In  some  cases  of  broken  wind,  the  air  vesicles  of  the 
lungs  have  been  found,  after  death,  ruptured;  the  right  side  of 
the  heart  enlarged,  and  the  walls  of  the  stomach  dilated,  though 
this  is  not  always  true.  A  predisposition  to  this  disease  may 
be  inherited.  In  doubtful  cases  of  broken*  wind,  give  the  animal 
all  the  water  he  will  drink  and  then  ride  or  drive  him  uphill. 
This  will  bring  out  the  symptoms  if  the  disease  is  present. 

There  is  great  diversity  of  opinion  as  regards  the  exact 
cause  of  heaves.  It  is  usually  associated  with  disorder  of  di- 
gestion, or  to  an  error  in  choice  of  feed.  Feeding  on  clover 


484        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

hay  or  damaged  hay  or  straw,  too  bulky  food,  and  keeping 
the  horse  in  a  dusty  atmosphere  or  a  badly  ventilated  stable 
produce  or  predispose  to  heaves.  Horses  brought  from  a  high 
to  a  low  level  are  predisposed. 

Capped  elbow. — This  is  commonly  termed  "shoe  boil," 
and  consists  of  a  bruise  at  the  point  of  the  elbow,  generally 
caused  by  the  heel  of  the  shoe  when  the  horse  is  lying  down, 
and  sometimes  from  other  causes.  The  continued  irritation 
leads  to  the  production  of  a  tumor  at  the  point  of  the  elbow. 
The  skin  may  be  broken,  and  slight  suppuration  very  often 
occurs.  The  cause  must  be  removed,  and  the  animal  provided 
with  a  leather  or  rubber  ring  around  the  fetlock  while  in  the 
stall.  The  remainder  of  the  treatment  is  surgical.  Capped 
elbow  may  cause  severe  lameness,  but  it  is  usually  a  blemish 
only. 

Capped  hock. — This  is  quite  common  and  may  or  may  not 
constitute  unsoundness.  It  is  the  result  of  a  bruise,  either 
continuous  or  intermittent,  and  may  appear  suddenly  or  grad- 
ually. Such  bruises  may  be  received  in  shipping  by  train  or 
boat,  or  by  the  habit  some  animals  have  of  kicking  against 
the  sides  of  the  stall,  or  at  fences,  or  even  in  harness.  The 
skin,  bursa,  or  the  bone  may  be  involved  in  capped  hock.  Usual- 
ly it  is  the  skin,  which  becomes  very  much  thickened  over  the 
point  of  the  hock.  It  is  in  every  case  a  blemish.  Treatment 
consists  of  hot  and  cold  applications  and  blistering. 

Cataract. — When  the  lens  of  the  eye  becomes  so  cloudy 
or  opaque  as  to  present  a  white  or  grayish  color,  the  eye  is  said 
to  be  affected  with  cataract,  which  is  a  practically  incurable 
form  of  blindness.  A  blow  over  the  eye  and  other  causes  bring 
it  on.  It  is  rather  common,  particularly  in  aged  horses. 

Chronic  cough. — A  permanent  cough  accompanying  broken 
wind,  glanders,  and  other  diseases  constitutes  an  unsoundness. 

Cocked  ankles  or  knuckling. — This  is  a  partial  dislocation 
of  the  fetlock  joint,  in  which  the  position  of  the  bones  is  changed, 
the  pastern  becoming  more  nearly  perpendicular.  While  it  is 
not  always  an  unsoundness,  it  nevertheless  predisposes  to  stumb- 
ling and  to  fracture  of  the  pastern.  Young  foals  are  frequently 
subject  to  this  condition,  and  in  the  great  majority  of  such  cases 
the  trouble  disappears  in  a  few  weeks  without  treatment.  Horses 
with  erect  pasterns  often  knuckle  as  they  grow  old,  especially 
in  the  hind  legs.  All  kinds  of  hard  work,  particularly  in  hilly 
districts,  are  exciting  causes  of  this  trouble.  It  is  also  caused 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK         485 

by  improper  shoeing,  in  which  the  toe  is  made  too  long  and  the 
heel  too  low,  thus  producing  inflammation  and  retraction  of 
the  tendons.  Lastly,  it  is  caused  by  disease  of  the  suspensory 
ligament  or  of  the  flexor  tendons,  whereby  they  are  shortened, 
and  by  disease  of  the  fetlock  joint.  It  is  one  of  the  worst  faults 
a  horse  can  possess,  and  it  greatly  affects  the  value  and  the  price. 
Treatment  varies  depending  on  the  cause  of  the  trouble.  Relief 
may  be  secured  by  so  shoeing  as  to  shorten  the  toe  and  elevate 
the  heels,  thus  relieving  the  tendons.  In  extreme  cases,  the 
tendons  may  be  operated  on  to  secure  relief.  Firing  and  blister- 
ing effect  a  cure  in  some  instances. 

Contracted  feet. — Contraction  of  the  feet  is  not  a  diseased 
condition  in  itself,  but  is  a  symptom  of  such  and  leads  to  trouble. 
Contraction  is  due  to  a  removal  of  the  full  functions  of  the  foot, 
such  as  is  the  case  in  lameness,  removal  of  frog  pressure,  defective 
shoeing,  etc.  Contraction  occurs  more  especially  at  the  heels, 
and  more  frequently  in  the  fore  feet  than  in  the  hind  ones.  Veter- 
inarians look  upon  this  condition  as  constituting  unsoundness. 
Treatment  is  not  of  much  avail,  but  going  barefoot  or  wearing 
a  special  shoe  to  spread  the  heels  will  help  to  alleviate  the  con- 
dition. 

Corns. — A  corn  is  a  bruise  to  the  fleshy  sole,  and  is  mani- 
fested by  a  reddish  discoloration  of  the  horny  sole  beneath 
the  bruise.  It  usually  occurs  upon  the  inner  quarter  of  the 
fore  foot.  A  corn  very  often  causes  severe  lameness,  and  is 
a  cause  of  unsoundness.  The  treatment  consists  in  paring, 
special  shoeing,  poulticing,  keeping  the  part  thoroughly  clean, 
and  a  few  weeks'  rest. 

Cracked  heels. — This  condition  is  denoted  by  an  inflamed 
state  of  the  skin,  which  becomes  broken,  and,  if  severe,  may 
cause  lameness.  They  are  frequent  in  the  horse,  especially 
following  a  frost,  the  moisture  from  the  thaw  favoring  this. 
It  is  similar  to  chapped  hands,  and  fissuring  is  favored  by  the 
movements  in  the  hollow  of  the  heels.  Treatment  consists  of 
the  application  of  a  soothing  liniment  applied  daily  with  tow 
and  bandage. 

Curb. — This  is  an  unnatural  prominence  of  variable  size, 
located  on  the  posterior  border  of  the  hock,  four  or  five  inches 
below  the  point  of  the  hock.  It  is  easily  detected  by  viewing 
the  joint  in  profile.  It  is  caused  by  a  sprain  of  the  tendon  which 
passes  over  that  part,  or  of  the  strong  ligament  located  there. 
Hocks  that  are  sickled,  coarse,  and  thick  in  appearance,  or  that 


486        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

are  too  narrow  from  front  to  back  at  their  base,  most  often 
develop  curbs.  Violent  efforts  in  heavy  pulling,  high  jumping, 
or  slipping  are  often  the  direct  cause  of  curb.  Curbs  do  not 
often  cause  lameness,  or,  if  they  do,  it  is  usually  during  the 
formative  stage.  Legally  it  is  an  unsoundness,  although  it  is 
not  much  of  a  detriment,  especially  in  horses  for  slow  work. 
Curbs  are  much  less  serious  than  bone  spavins,  ringbones,  side- 
bones,  cocked  ankles,  and  stringhalt.  Treatment  in  the  early 
stages  consists  of  cold  applications  to  relieve  the  acute  inflamma- 
tion. When  the  first  stage  has  passed,  blistering,  frictions  with 
ointments,  and  firing  are  often  used  with  good  success. 

Fistula. — This  is  an  ulcerous  lesion  found  at  the  withers. 
Fistulas  follow  as  a  result  of  abscesses,  bruises,  wounds,  or  long- 
continued  irritation  by  the  harness  or  saddle.  The  pus  burrows 
and  finds  lodgment  deep  down  between  the  muscles.  The  horse 
becomes  incapacitated  for  work  for  a  considerable  period.  Most 


A  I    |B 

Fig.  166.     Curb. 

A,  Sound  hock;  B,  curb. 

cases  are  curable.  The  treatment  is  largely  surgical;  the  animal 
should  be  placed  in  the  care  of  a  competent  veterinarian  as  soon 
as  the  condition  is  discovered.  After  the  fistula  is  healed,  a 
scar  usually  remains  in  the  region  of  the  withers.  A  horse  that 
has  had  fistula  is  liable  to  subsequent  attacks  of  the  same  trouble. 
Founder  or  laminitis. — This  is  a  simple  inflammation  of 
the  fleshy  laminae  within  the  hoof.  Being  exceedingly  vascu- 
lar, the  laminae  are  subject  to  congestion,  and,  being  enclosed 
within  the  hoof,  there  is  very  little  room  for  the  relief  of  the 
congestion.  The  animal  suffers  most  agonizing  pain.  Con- 
cussion is  one  of  the  most  common  causes.  Another  is  over- 
feeding on  grain,  causing  indigestion,  irritation  of  the  alimentary 
tract,  and  inflammation  of  the  fleshy  laminae  through  sympathy. 
Other  causes  are  unusual  excitement,  bad  shoeing,  over-exertion, 
exhaustion,  rapid  changes  of  temperature,  or  any  other  agencies 
of  an  over-supply  of  blood  to  the  fleshy  laminae,  resulting  in 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        487 

congestion  and  inflammation.  But  it  is  the  after-effects  which 
are  of  most  interest  to  us  here.  The  disease  sometimes  becomes 
chronic,  and  this  seriously  affects  the  secretion  of  the  horn.  The 
toe  of  the  hoof  turns  up,  the  heels  become  longer  than  natural, 
while  the  hoof  near  the  coronet  is  circled  with  ridges  like  those 
of  a  ram's  horn.  These  ridges  are  wide  apart  at  the  heel,  and 
close  together  in  front,  and  are  due  to  periods  of  interference 
with  the  growth  of  horn  simultaneous  with  the  inflammation 
of  the  fleshy  laminae.  Because  of  the  high  heel  and  turned-up 
toe,  the  leg  knuckles  at  the  fetlock  joint.  Usually,  accom- 
panying these  defects,  the  sole  is  found  to  be  thin,  convex,  and 
weak,  and  will  stand  but  little  wear.  Because  of  the  convexity, 
the  diseased  tissues  bear  unusual  weight,  and  such  animals  are 
generally  incurable  cripples. 

Grease. — This  is  not  an  unsoundness,  but  is  such  a  trou- 
blesome and  common  complaint  that  brief  mention  is  here 
given.  It  is  a  skin  disease  appearing  nearly  always  in  the  hind 
cannons.  Draft  horses  are  more  subject  to  it  than  light  horses. 
Some  individuals  are  predisposed  to  it — those  with  coarse  skin 
and  coarse  feather.  Other  horses  have  it  as  a  form  of  parasitic 
mange,  denoted  by  a  greasy  condition  of  the  skin,  congestion 
of  the  skin,  erect  hair,  and  offensive  odor  due  to  discharge  from 
the  sores.  There  is  a  constant  itching  and  the  horse  rubs  the 
part,  producing  thickening  and  wrinkling  of  the  ^kin.  Treat- 
ment varies.  Half  an  ounce  of  Fowler's  solution  of  arsenic 
night  and  morning  in  the  feed,  burning  with  hot  iron,  applying 
hot  linseed  poultices,  dressing  with  lead  lotion,  giving  a  mild 
physic,  decreasing  amount  of  feed  allowance — all  these  furnish 
good  methods  of  treatment. 

Hip  down. — This  is  a  fracture  of  the  point  of  the  hip,  often 
caused  by  the  animal  striking  the  part  against  the  door  post 
of  the  stable.  It  causes  a  flatness  and  sometimes  the  broken 
piece  of  bone  may  be  felt.  It  is  best  detected  by  standing 
squarely  behind  the  animal  and  viewing  it  across  the  hips.  It 
constitutes  a  blemish. 

Navicular  disease. — Navicular  disease  is  a  chronic  inflam- 
mation involving  the  navicular  bone,  the  navicular  bursa,  and 
the  flexor  tendon  of  the  foot.  It  is  brought  on  by  repeated 
bruising.  Light  horses  are  affected  much  oftener  than  heavy 
horses.  The  hind  feet  are  seldom  affected.  It  is  practically 
never  found  in  mules.  One-third  of  the  weight  falling  on  the 
leg  is  sustained  by  the  little  bow-shaped  navicular  bone,  and 


488        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

the  bone  in  turn  is  supported  by  the  flexor  tendon  of  the  foot. 
(See  Fig.  115.)  Such  defects  as  an  insufficient  plantar  cushion, 
a  small  frog,  and  contracted  feet  predispose  the  horse  to  navicu- 
lar  disease.  In  this  way  the  disease  may  be  hereditary,  as  these 
predisposing  causes  may  be  transmitted  to  offspring.  High 
knee  action,  fast  work,  and  hard  pavements  also  endanger  a 
horse  from  this  disease.  Dry  stables,  heavy  pulling,  and  bad 
shoeing  also  tend  toward  the  development  of  this  trouble.  In 
the  early  stages  of  navicular  disease,  the  animal  at  rest  points 
the  affected  foot  forward  and  rests  it  on  the  toe,  with  the  fetlock 
and  knee  flexed.  In  the  lameness  which  develops,  the  affected 
leg  takes  a  short  stride,  and  the  toe  strikes  the  ground  first. 
The  disease  is  progressive  and  incurable,  rendering  the  animal 
practically  valueless,  but  not  entirely  useless  on  soft  ground. 
To  relieve  the  pain,  neurotomy  may  be  performed,  an  operation 
in  which  the  sense  of  feeling  is  destroyed  in  the  foot  by  cutting 
out  pieces  of  the  nerve  at  the  fetlock.  Navicular  disease  is  one 
of  the  most  serious  unsoundnesses. 

Periodic  ophthalmia  or  moon  blindness. — This  is  a  disease 
affecting  the  eyes  of  horses,  probably  caused  by  a  germ.  It  is 
quite  commonly  called  moonblindness,  because  it  was  thought 
at  one  time  that  the  moon  had  some  influence  on  the  cause  of 
the  disease.  There  is  undoubtedly  an  hereditary  predisposition 
to  the  disease,  but  there  are  few  cases  to  indicate  that  the  disease 
itself  is  transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring,  but  rather  the  foal 
is  born  with  a  weakness  of  the  eyes,  transmitted  by  the  stallion 
or  dam.  Other  predisposing  factors  are  low,  swampy  pastures, 
poorly  ventilated  or  insufficiently  lighted  stables,  over-feeding, 
etc. 

The  disease  comes  on  with  an  inflammation  usually  of  one 
eye.  The  transparent  portion  of  the  eyeball  becomes  bluish 
or  white  in  color,  most  noticeable  in  the  lower  part.  The  eye 
is  kept  half  closed  on  account  of  pain  produced  by  light.  Often 
this  is  associated  by  a  swelling  of  the  eyelids  and  reddening  of 
the  membrane  lining  them,  with  a  discharge  of  tears  over  the 
face.  There  is  no  indication  of  an  injury  or  more  severe  in- 
flammation at  one  point  than  at  another.  In  one  to  two  weeks 
these  .symptoms  disappear  and  the  eye  may  be  practically  nor- 
mal to  all  general  appearances  for  a  period  of  usually  one  to 
three  months,  when  another  attack  occurs  more  severe  than 
the  first.  After  a  few  attacks  have  come  and  gone,  the  eye  has 
a  bluish  appearance,  looks  cloudy  instead  of  clear,  the  eyeball  is 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        489 

shrunken,  retracted  in  the  orbit,  and  the  lens  develops  a  cataract. 
After  having  destroyed  one  eye,  the  disease  frequently  affects 
the  other,  and  the  history  of  the  first  is  repeated. 

Poll  evil. — Poll  evil  is  a  fistula  upon  the  poll  of  the  head, 
and  in  no  sense  differs  from  fistulous  withers  except  in  location. 
It  is  caused  by  blows,  bruises,  and  chafing  by  the  halter  or  bridle. 

Ringbone. — This  is  a  bony  growth  at  the  coronet  or  on  the 
pastern,  in  either  the  front  or  hind  legs.     It  is  called  "ring- 
bone" because  it  often  grows  around  the  coronet  so  as  to  form  \ 
a  ring,  although  in  a  large  number  of  cases  the  growth  takes  \ 
the  form  of  a  lump  on  the  pastern,  rather  than  that  of  a  ring 
at  the  hoof-head.    This  disease  may  result  from  severe  work 
in  early  life,  from  bruises,  blows,  or  sprains,  or  from  improper 
shoeing.    Ringbone  often  follows  an  abscess  of  the  coronet,  or 
a  deep-punctured  wound.    It  is  also  classed  as  an  hereditary 
unsoundness,   horses  with  short,   upright  pasterns  being  pre- 


A  B  C 

Fig.  167.     Ringbone  and  Cocked  Ankle. 

A,  Sound;  B,  ringbone;  C,  cocked  ankle. 

disposed.  Ringbones  often  cause  lameness  which  may  disap- 
pear with  exercise,  returning  again  when  the  animal  is  cooled. 
They  may  or  may  not  stiffen  the  joint.  The  size  of  the  ring- 
bone is  not  so  important  as  its  position.  If  it  is  located  so  as 
to  interfere  with  the  movement  of  the  tendons  behind  or  in 
front  of  the  foot,  it  is  a  very  serious  trouble.  Prevention  of 
ringbones  consists  in  keeping  foals  well  nourished,  and  keeping 
the  hoofs  in  balance.  Curative  measures  consist  of  so  shoe- 
ing as  to  straighten  the  axis  of  the  foot  and  pastern  as  viewed 
from  the  side;  blistering,  followed  by  a  few  weeks  of  rest;  and 
point  firing  in  two  or  three  lines  over  the  ringbone.  When 
these  measures  do  not  relieve  lameness,  the  only  recourse  is 
nerving. 

Roaring  or  thick  wind. — Horses  that  make  a  loud,  unnat- 
ural noise  in  breathing  are  said  to  have  thick  wind,  or  to  be 
roarers,  excepting  those  which  manifest  this  trouble  because 


490        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

of  a  severe  sore  throat.  Any  obstruction  of  the  free  passage 
of  air  in  some  part  of  the  respiratory  tract  may  cause  roaring; 
occasional  causes  are  nasal  polypi,  thickening  of  the  membrane, 
pharyngeal  polypi,  deformed  bones,  paralysis  of  the  wing  of 
the  nostril,  etc.  However,  chronic  roaring  is  caused  by  paralysis 
of  the  muscles  of  the  larynx,  thus  permitting  the  cartilage  and 
vocal  cord  to  lean  into  the  tube  of  the  larynx.  The  noise  is 
made  during  inspiration,  and  in  far-advanced  cases  may  be 
produced  also  during  expiration.  A  horse  is  tested  for  roaring 
by  putting  him  to  severe  exertion,  as  the  sound  is  usually  made 
only  when  at  work.  Roaring  is  a  serious  unsoundness  because 
it  incapacitates  an  animal  for  severe  work,  and  it  is  a  serious 
blemish  because  the  noise  is  unpleasant.  It  is  classed  as  an 
hereditary  disease.  Treatment  varies  depending  on  the  exact 
cause,  and  includes  a  course  of  iodide  of  potassium  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  disease,  or,  in  advanced  cases,  operating  on  the 
larynx. 

Grunting. — When  a  pass  is  made  at  a  horse  with  a  stick, 
or  he  is  otherwise  startled,  and  he  grunts,  he  should  be  further 
tested  for  roaring.  It  is  a  common  thing  for  a  roarer  to  grunt, 
although  grunters  are  not  always  roarers.  Such  animals  should 
be  given  a  severe  test  of  wind.  Pleurisy  and  rheumatism  will 
cause  grunting,  which  ceases  when  the  animal  recovers  from  the 
disease. 

Whistling. — This  is  only  a  variation  of  the  sound  emitted 
by  a  roarer.  It  may  be  temporary,  due  to  a  severe  sore  throat. 

Sand  crack. — Sand  crack  is  a  splitting  of  the  wall  of  the 
hoof,  beginning  at  the  coronet,  and  commonly  at  the  inner  or 
outer  quarter  in  the  fore  feet  or  at  the  toe  in  hind  ones.  It  is  due 
to  imperfection  in  the  growth  of  horn.  It  may  cause  lameness 
through  sensitive  parts  -being  nipped  by  the  crack.  It  con- 
stitutes unsoundness.  The  treatment  is  rest  and  cutting  a 
notch  transversely  below  the  crack.  If  there  is  lameness  the 
crack  may  be  clasped.  The  shoe  may  be  seated  out  below  the 
crack,  relieving  pressure. 

Sidebones. — Sidebones  are  formed  by  the  ossification  of 
the  lateral  cartilages  of  the  foot,  so  that  they  become  hard 
and  unyielding,  instead  of  soft  and  elastic.  (See  Fig.  115.)  This 
disease  is  most  common  in  heavy  horses.  They  are  found  more 
often  in  the  front  feet  than  in  the  hind  ones,  and  the  outer  carti- 
lage is  more  often  affected  than  the  inner  one.  In  the  hind  feet 
they  are  of  little  importance,  since  they  cause  no  lameness. 


TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK        491 

In  the  front  feet  they  may  or  may  not  cause  lameness,  usually 
the  latter;  however,  they  always  lessen  the  natural  expansion 
of  the  heels  and  often  result  in  shortening  of  the  stride.  When 
lameness  is  present,  the  horse  comes  out  of  the  stable  stiff  and 
sore,  but  with  exercise  the  gait  shows  improvement.  Sidebones 
are  caused  by  sprains,  bruises,  blows,  and  other  injuries;  and  by 
high-heeled  shoes,  high  calks,  and  short,  upright  pasterns.  The 
size  and  prominence  of  a  sidebone  is  not  an  index  to  the  damage 
it  may  produce.  Treatment  is  not  of  much  account.  It  con- 
sists in  using  cold-water  bandages,  then  blistering  or  firing. 
Neurotomy  (nerving)  is  often  practiced  to  relieve  lameness. 
This  is  classed  as  an  hereditary  unsoundness.  It  is  a  serious 
form  of  unsoundness,  but  is  not  so  serious  as  bone  spavin,  ring- 
bone, roaring,  or  blindness. 

Splint. — A  splint  is  a  variable-sized  bony  enlargement  on 
the  cannon  bone,  usually  on  the  inside  of  the  upper  two-thirds 
of  the  front  cannons.  The  button-like  enlargements  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  splint  bones  should  not  be  mistaken  for  splints. 
Splints  occasionally  cause  lameness;  if  so,  they  constitute  an 
unsoundness.  They  are  more  detrimental  in  horses  used  for 
fast  work  than  in  heavy  horses  used  for  slow  work.  In  the  great 
majority  of  cases,  splints  are  only  minor  blemishes.  Many 
horses  have  them.  Splints  often  appear  in  young  horses  and 
may  be  absorbed  shortly  afterwards  without  treatment.  The 
chief  cause  of  splint  is  concussion.  Other  causes  are  sprains 
and  injuries  or  blows  on  the  cannon  bone.  No  treatment  should 
be  given,  as  they  but  rarely  cause  trouble.  Blistering  and  firing 
are  sometimes  practiced. 

Sprung  knees  or  buck  knees. — This  defective  conformation 
may  be  congenital  or  the  result  of  heavy  labor  at  too  early  an 
age,  there  being  retraction  of  the  flexor  tendons  of  the  parts 
below  the  knee.  While  not  an  unsoundness,  it  detracts  from 
the  usefulness  and  value,  especially  in  saddle  horses.  Horses 
with  badly  sprung  knees  may  fall  even  when  standing  at  rest 
and  unmolested.  (See  D  in  Fig.  120.) 

Stringhalt. — This  disease  comes  under  the  general  head- 
ing, chorea,  or  St.  Vitus  dance.  It  is  manifested  by  a  sudden, 
involuntary  jerking  up  of  one  or  both  hind  legs  when  the  animal 
is  walking  or  trotting.  It  may  be  very  slight  in  some  horses, 
but  increases  with  age.  In  some  the  affected  leg  is  caught  up 
very  violently  and  high,  and  then  lowered  equally  sudden  and 
forcible.  It  is  more  often  associated  with  a  nervous  disposition 


492        TYPES  AND  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

than  with  a  sluggish  one.  It  is  an  incurable  disease  and  very 
considerably  lessens  the  price.  It  is  best  detected  by  causing 
the  animal  to  back,  or  turning  him  around  in  his  tracks  first  one 
way  and  then  the  other. 

Swollen  legs. — A  swollen  leg  usually  indicates  disease,  the 
causes  being  many.  It  is  also  not  uncommon  in  old  horses, 
or  those  having  a  sluggish  circulation.  It  is  not  an  unsound- 
ness,  but  detracts  from  the  appearance  and  is  highly  undesir- 
able. Treatment  consists  in  giving  laxatives,  saltpeter,  and 
moderate  exercise. 

Thoroughpin. — This  is  similar  to  bog  spavin;  it  is  a  swell- 
ing occurring  at  the  back  and  on  top  of  the  hock  in  that  part 
known  as  the  "hollows."  It  is  due  to  weakness  of  the  capsular 
ligament  and  to  hyper-secretion  of  synovial  fluid.  It  is  round 
and  smooth,  and  most  apparent  when  viewed  from  behind. 
The  swelling  is  usually  on  both  sides  and  a  little  in  front  of  the 
hamstring.  When  pressed  on  one  side,  further  distention  oc- 
curs on  the  opposite  side.  It  seldom  causes  lameness.  Treat- 
ment is  the  same  as  for  bog  spavin.  Thoroughpin  is  not  a 
serious  ailment,  being  usually  only  an  eyesore,  although  many 
horsemen  consider  it  an  unsoundness. 

Thrush. — This  is  a  disease  of  the  cleft  of  the  frog  which 
may  cause  lameness.  It  is  usually  the  result  of  negligence,  the 
result  of  uncleanliness.  The  cleft  of  the  frog  becomes  sup- 
purating and  moist,  and  there  is  a  very  rank  odor.  Treatment 
consists  in  washing,  disinfecting,  drying,  dusting  with  a  little 
calomel,  and  packing.  This  must  be  repeated  daily  until  the 
part  becomes  normal. 

Windgall  or  road  puff. — Joints  and  tendons  are  furnished 
with  sacs  containing  a  lubricating  fluid  called  synovia.  When 
these  sacs  at  the  fetlocks  become  distended  by  reason  of  an 
excessive  secretion  of  synovia,  they  are  called  windgalls.  They 
form  a  soft,  puffy  tumor  about  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut  or  walnut. 
They  are  sometimes  found  in  young  horses,  but  are  most  common 
in  horses  used  for  hard  labor,  especially  on  pavements.  They 
may  be  accompanied  by  lameness,  but  if  not,  they  are  classed 
merely  as  blemishes.  As  a  rule,  no  treatment  is  necessary  in 
young  horses.  Older  animals  may  be  treated  by  resting,  cold- 
water  douches  and  bandages,  and  blistering. 


INDEX. 


Action,   effects  of  conformation  on, 

366-9. 

slope  of  pastern  on,  369. 
essentials  of,  368. 

(For  action  of  various  types 
see  chapters  on  draft,  carriage, 
road,  and  saddle  horses.) 
Age,  in  selecting  feeder  steers,  97-100. 
from  teeth,  cattle,  39. 

horses,  370-2. 
sheep,  202. 
to  breed  ewes,  240. 
heifers,  137. 
mares,  464. 
sows,  344. 
castrate  calves,  26. 
colts,  346. 
lambs,  193. 
pigs,  281. 
dock  lambs,  193. 
Alveoli  of  udder,  157-8. 
American  horses,  origin  of,  378-81. 
Jack,  468. 
Merino,  245-53. 
Saddle  Horse,  origin  of,  379-80. 

type  of,  419-22. 

-type  hog,  description  of,  282-9. 
Anatomy  of  horse,  348-60. 
Arabian  horse,  origin  of}  374-5. 
Army  mules,  478-9. 
Artillery  horses,  446-8. 
Ass,  468. 

Auction  rules,  438-9. 
Australian    plan    of    handling    wool, 

277-8. 

Automobile,  effect  on  horse  industry, 
382. 

Baby  beef,  87-91. 

advantages  and  profits,  126. 

on  the  market,  110. 
Bacon  hog  carcass,  306-8. 
hogs,  English,  325-6. 
U.  S.,  326. 

-producing  countries,  290. 

production,  feeds  used  in,  290-1. 

-type  hog,  description  of,  290-6. 
Barb  horse,  origin  of,  375. 
Barrow,  definition  of,  281. 
Base  of  support  of  horse,  361-2. 
Bate,    John   J.,    early   beef   exports 

by,  82. 
Beef,  ageing  or  ripening,  49. 

block  or  side,  49. 


Beef,  continued. 

breeding  cattle,  weight  for  age, 
131. 

cow,  type  desired  in,  133-7. 
breeds,  25. 

internal  fat  of,  68. 
bull,  importance  of  a  good,  128-30 

number  of  cows  bred  to  a, 
133. 

type  desired  in,  128-33. 
carcass,  40-56. 

classes  and  grades  of,  54-5. 

cutters  and  canners,  49. 

differences  due  to  sex,  54. 

good  and  inferior  compared, 
48. 

grading,  53-4. 

how  produced,  46-7. 

shape  of,  50. 

thickness  of  fat  on,  50-2. 
flesh  in,  50. 

variations  in,  44-5. 

weights  of,  49-50. 
cattle  breeding  for  market,  125- 
37. 

prices,  high  and  low  months, 
124. 

shrinkage  in  transit,  81. 
consumption    in    various    coun- 
tries, 297-8. 

corned,  introduction  of,  80. 
cow,  type  desired  in,  133-7. 
cuts,  prices  of,  44. 

weights  of,  44. 
cutting,  43. 
demands  of  butcher,  48-9. 

consumer,  48-9. 
exports  of,  23. 

pioneer,  82. 
grain  of,  53. 

heifers,  age  to  breed,  137. 
making,  value  of  type  in,  63-70. 
marbling,  50-2. 
pounds   produced    per   head    of 

stock  cows,  125. 

production,     baby,     advantages 
of,  126. 

in  cornbelt,  outlook,  126. 

factors  for  success  in,  137. 
see  Calves,  Carcass,  Cattle,  and 

Feeders, 
sire,  price  to  pay  for,  129. 

type  desired  in,  131-3. 


493 


494 


INDEX 


Beef,  continued. 

steer  vs.  dairy  steer,  63-70. 

vs.  beef  heifer,  91-3. 
type,  definition  of,  25. 

description  of,  27-39. 
wholesale  cuts  of,  42-4. 
Blindness,  481. 
Block  beef,  49. 
Blood  meal,  source  of,  212. 
spavin,  481. 

supply  to  udder,  159-60. 
Boar,  definition  of,  281. 

number  of  sows  bred  to,  344. 
type  desired  in.  339-44. 
Boars,  on  the  market,  328. 
Bog  spavin,  481-2. 
Bone  spavin,  482-3. 
Bones,  flintiness  of,  in  beef  carcass,  53. 
of  cattle,  changes  due  to  age,  46-7 
size  of,  in  beef  carcass,  53. 
Break-joint  of  lambs,  208-9. 
Breed,   a  factor  in  selecting  feeder 

steers,  103-4. 
of  horses,  selecting  a,  463. 
type,  definition  of,  25. 
Breeding  bucks,  on  market,  232. 
ewes,  on  market,  230-2. 
for  milk  production,  172-9. 
the  market, 
cattle,  125-37. 
hogs,  332-44. 
horses,  457-67. 
sheep,  235-44. 
sheep  class,  230-2. 
Breeds  of  cattle,  25. 

beef,  internal  fat  of,  68. 
dairy  cows,  differences  in  milk 

of,  160-1. 
horses,  383. 

origin  of,  374-83. 
jacks,  468. 
sheep,  192. 

classification  of  wool  of,  267. 
swine,  281. 
Broken  wind,  483-4. 
Brood  mares,  selection  of,  463-4. 

working,  459. 
Buck,  definition  of,  193. 
Buck  knees,  491. 
Bucks  and  stags,  226. 

breeding,  on  the  market,  232. 
Bull,  definition  of,  26. 
Bulls  and  stags,  on  the  market,  113. 

feeder,  117. 

Bull's  Head  Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  76. 
Butcher  cattle,  112-3. 
hogs,  322-3. 

By-products  from  slaughtering — 
cattle,  57-62. 
hogs,  312,  317-8. 
sheep,  212-3. 
Cab  horses,  451. 
Calf,  definition  of,  26. 


Calves,  charges  for  selling  at  Chicago, 

83. 

manner  of  dressing,  42. 
number  slaughtered  in  U.  S.,  72. 
value,  and  weight,  at 

Chicago,  71. 

prices  of,  at  Chicago,  122-4. 
see  Cattle  and  Veal  calves, 
slaughter    at    markets,    locally, 

and  on  farms,  72. 
of,   in   percentage  stock  of 

cows,  125. 
yearlings,  and  older  cattle,  for 

feeding,  97-100. 
Canner  carcasses,  49. 
cattle,  114-5. 
Canter  described,  421. 
Capped  elbow,  484. 
hock,  484. 

Carbonization  of  wools,  271. 
Carcass,  bacon  hog,  306-8. 
beef,  discussion  of,  40-56. 
cutter  and  canner,  49. 
differences  due  to  sex,  54. 
for  side  or  block  use,  49. 
good  and  inferior  compared, 

48. 

grading,  53-4. 
heifer  vs.  steer,  51. 
how  produced,  46-7. 
shape  of,  50. 
thickness  of  fat  on,  50-2. 

of  flesh  in,  50. 
variations  in,  44-5. 
classes  and  grades,  beef  and  veal, 

54-5. 

hog,  308-10. 
sheep  and  lamb,  207. 
goat,  209-10. 

hog,  discussion  of,  297-310. 
sheep  or  lamb — 

discussion  of,  203-10. 
qualifications  of  a  good,  207-9. 
weights,  beef,  49-50. 
hog,  308. 
lamb,  208. 
sheep,  208. 
veal,  55. 
Carloads,  number  of  animals  per  car, 

78-9. 

Carpet  wool,  259-60. 
Carriage,  evolution  of,  376-8. 
horse  class,  449-51. 

in  America,  381. 

origin  and  development  of, 

376-8. 

type,  description  of,  400-8, 
Casings,  for  sausage,  212. 
Castration,  best  age  for  calves,  26. 
colts,  346. 
la*ibs,  193. 
pi£s,  281. 
Cataract,  484. 


INDEX 


495 


Cattle   breeding    in  West,   status  in 

various  states,  129-30. 
business  today,  83-4. 
by-products   from  slaughtering 

57-62. 

charges  for  selling  at  Chicago,  83. 
dressing  percentage  of,  41-2. 
early,  85-7. 
fashions  in,  85-94. 
feeding,  advantages  of,  105. 
margin  in,  96-7. 
source  of  profit  in,  96. 
hides,  average  weight  and  value 

of,  57. 

hoofs,  value  of,  58. 
horns,  value  of,  58. 
how  classified  and  graded  on 

market,  119-22. 
market  receipts,  71-2. 
marketing,  by  seasons,  72. 
markets,  American,  71-84. 

development  of  large,  74-5. 
early,  73. 

number  slaughtered  in  U.  S.,  72. 
to  each  inhabitant,  125. 
value    and    distribution    in 

U.  S.,  125-6. 
value  and  weight  at  Chicago, 

71. 

offal,  41. 
prices  at  Chicago,  122-4. 

highest   and   lowest   months 

on  market,  124. 
see  Calves. 

shipments  by  rail,  early,  75. 
methods  of,  early,  74-5. 
shrinkage  of,  in  transit,  81. 
slaughter  at  Chicago,  72,  80. 

markets,  locally,  and 

on  farms,  72. 
of,  in  percentage  stock 

of  cows,  125. 
slaughtering,  40-1. 
special  advantage  of,  on  farm,  26. 
terms,  definition  of,  26. 
weights  of  early,  85-7. 
Caul  of  sheep,  204-5. 
Cavalry  horses,  453-4. 
Chicago,  Bull's  Head  Stock  Yards,  76. 
cattle  market,  71. 
slaughter  at,  72,  80. 
sources  of  receipts,  79. 
charges  for  buying  hogs,  328. 
corn,  322. 
hay.  83. 
public  inspection  of  hogs, 

322. 

selling  cattle  and  calves,  83. 
hogs,  322. 

sheep  and  goats,  215. 
yardage,  cattle,  83. 
hogs,  322. 
sheep  and  goats,  215. 


Chicago,  continued. 

development    of    meat    packing 

at,  315. 

early  cattle  trade,  75-6. 
hog  market,  319-20. 

growth  of,  319-20. 
-packing  firms,  317. 
hogs  slaughtered  at,  317. 
packing  plants,  owners  of,  80. 
prices  for  cattle  and  calves,  122-4. 
hogs,  330. 
horses,  455-6. 
sheep  and  lambs,  233-4. 
see  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago, 
sheep  market,  214-5. 

slaughtered  at,  214-5. 
zone   system   of   marketing   at, 

72-3. 

Chitterlings,  312. 
Chunk  horses,  443-4. 
Cincinnati,    early    hog    packing    at, 

314. 

Circulation  of  blood  to  udder,  159-60. 
Class,  market,  definition  of,  106. 
Classes   and    grades    of    carcasses — 
beef,  54-5. 
hog,  308-10. 
mutton  and  lamb,  207. 
Classes  and  grades  of  cattle,  106-24. 
hogs,  322-31. 
horses,  438-56. 
mules,  472-9. 
sheep,  215-34. 
wool,  262-7. 

Classes,  average  prices  at  Chicago — 
cattle,  122-4. 
hogs,  330. 
horses,  455-6. 
sheep,  233-4. 

Classes  of  Merinos,  251-3. 
Classification     of     fine-wool     sheep, 
251-3. 

see  Market  classes, 
types  and  breeds  of 

horses,  383. 
types  and  breeds  of 

sheep,  192. 
wools,  259-67. 
Clothing  and  combing  wools,  258-9, 

262-7. 

Coach  horses,  450. 
Cob  horses,  450. 
Cocked  ankles,  484-5. 
Colostrum,  162. 
Colt,  definition  of,  346. 
Combing  and  clothing  wools,  258-9, 

262-7. 

Commission  charges,  Chicago — 
buying  hogs,  328. 
selling  cattle,  83. 
hogs,  322. 

sheep  and  goats,  215. 
Conestoga  horses,  379. 


496 


INDEX 


Contracted  feet,  485.    , 

Corn  and  hogs  closely  related,  334-5. 

beef,  80. 

charges  for,  at  Chicago  market, 

322. 

Corns,  485. 
Cotton  mules,  475-6. 
Cough,  chronic,  484. 
Cow,  definition  of,  261. 
Cows,  fat,  on  the  market,  113. 

see  Beef  cows  and  Dairy  cows. 

stock  and  feeding,  117. 
Cracked  heels,  485. 
Crippled  hogs,  329. 
Cross-bred,  definition  of,  127. 
Cumberland  side,  307-8. 
Curb,  485-6. 
Cuts,  see  Wholesale  cuts. 
Cutter  carcasses,  49. 
Cutters  and  canners,  114-5. 
Cutting  beef,  43. 

Dairy  breeds,  25. 

differences  in  milk  of,  160-1. 
bull,  importance  of  a  good,  172-6. 
selection  of  a,  176-8. 
type  desired  in,  151-4. 
cattle  breeding,  172-9. 
cow,  type  desired  in,  138-51. 
cows,  method  of  judging,  138-40. 
notable  tests  of,  164-6. 
number,   value,   and  distri- 
bution in  U.  S.,  172. 
testing,  value  of,  175. 
variations  in  usefulness  of, 

164-71. 
world's  record-holding,  166- 

7. 

farming,  advantages  of,  178-9. 
steers,  for  beef,  63-70. 

why  lacking  thick  flesh,  68-9 
temperament,  150. 
type,  definition  of,  25. 

description  of,  138-54. 
Dead    animals,     numbers    removed 

from  cars  at  Chicago,  330. 
Dead  hogs,  329-30. 

sheep,  233. 

Delivery  wagon  horses,  446. 
Depilatory,  269. 
Digestive  system  of  horse,  350. 
Docking  lambs,  best  age  for,  193. 
Draft  horse  in  America,  380-1. 
mare,  selection  of,  463-4. 
mules,  477. 

stallion,  selection  of,  465. 
type,  advantages  of,  to  farmer, 

461. 

description  of,  384-99. 
origin  of,  376. 
weight  for  age,  399. 
Dressing  calves,  42. 
cattle,  40-1. 


Dressing,  continued. 
hogs,  297-8. 

percentage,  average  of — 
calves,  42. 
cattle,  42. 
hogs,  299-300. 
sheep  and  lambs,  205. 
of  cattle,  41-2. 
hogs,  299-300. 
sheep,  205. 
see  Slaughter, 
sheep  and  lambs,  204-5. 
Dual-purpose  breeds,  25. 

cattle,  profits  from,  184-7. 

utility  of,  180-2. 
type,  definition  of,  25. 

description  of,  182-4. 
Dyeing  woolen  goods,  259. 

Eastern  chunks,  443-4. 

Eastman,    Timothy    C.,    early    beef 

exports  by,  82. 

Eckles,  C.  H.,  investigation  of  varia- 
tion in  milk  production,  167- 
70. 

English  bacon  hogs,  325-6. 
Escutcheon  of  dairy  cattle,  149-50. 
Ewe,  definition  of,  193. 

mutton   breeding,    type   desired 

in,  240-3. 

Ewes,  age  to  breed,  240. 
fat,  226. 
feeder,  230. 

number  to  breed  to  one  ram,  240. 
Export  mules,  479. 
Exports  of  beef,  23. 

pioneer,  82. 
of  pork  products,  318-9. 

wools,  272-3. 
Express  horses,  445-6. 

Farm  chunks,  444. 
mules,  476-7. 
Farming,  live-stock,  advantages  of,  21. 

vs.  grain,  19. 

Fashions  in  market  cattle,  85-94. 
Fat,  color  of,  in  beef,  52-3. 
cows  on  the  market,  113. 
heifers  on  the  market,  109,  113. 
internal,   in   steers    of   different 

breeds,  68. 

percentage  in  cuts  of  beef,  48. 
steer  class,  107-10. 
storage  in  bodies  of  cattle,  47. 
thickness  of,  in  beef  carcass,  50-2. 
Fatness,  effect  of  feed  on,  in  steers, 

37-8. 

Federal  inspection  for  disease,  79. 
Feed,  charges  for,  at  Chicago,  83. 
effect   on   composition   of  milk, 

170-1. 

required  for  gains  in  hogs,  339-40. 
steers,  52. 


INDEX 


497 


Feeder  bulls,  117. 

cattle,  decline  in  production,  126. 
sale  of,  by  seasons,  95. 
sub-classes  and  grades,  115- 

7. 

where  bought,  95. 
ewes,  230. 
horses,  454. 
pigs,  328. 

sheep  and  lambs,  226-30. 
sale  by  seasons,  226. 
where  bought,  226-7. 
steers,  selection  of,  95-105. 
wethers,  230. 

Feeding  cattle,  advantages  of,  105. 
Feeds,  fertilizing  value  of,  20. 
Feet,  contracted,  485. 
Fertility,  soil,  maintenance  of,  20. 
Fertilizer,  source  of,  212. 
Fill  of  cattle  on  market,  42. 
Filly,  definition  of,  346. 
Fine-wool  sheep,  breeds  of,  192. 
type,  description  of,  245-54. 
Fire  horses,  448-9. 
Fistula,  486. 

Five-gaited  saddle  horse,  419-22. 
Fleece  of  fine-wool  sheep,  250. 

mutton  sheep,  198-202. 
see  Wool, 
tying,  275-6. 
Fleeces,  buck,  276. 

cotted  or  matted,  276. 
grading,  262. 

Flesh,  effect  of  feed  on,  in  hogs,  290-1. 
steers,  36-8. 

thickness  of,  in  beef  carcass,  50. 
why  dairy  steer  lacks,  68-9. 
Fleshing,  natural,  in  feeder  steers,  102. 
Foal,  definition  of,  346. 
Foods,  analyses  and  fuel  values  of,  337. 
Foot  of  horse,  anatomy  of,  355-9. 
characteristics  of  a  healthy,  359- 

60. 

Fore  leg  of  horse,  anatomy  of,  35i-2. 
attachment  of,  361-2. 
Founder,  486-7. 
Four-tooth,  definition  of,  193. 
Fox  trot  described,  422. 
Free-martin,  definition  of,  26. 

Gains  by  hogs  of  different   weights, 
339-40. 

steers  for  different  periods,  52. 
Gaits  of  horse  described,  420-2. 
trotting  and  pacing,  415-6. 
Gammon,  296. 
Gelding,  definition  of,  346. 
General-purpose  horse,  380. 
Gestation  period  of  cattle,  137. 
horses,  464. 
sheep,  240. 
swine,  344. 
Gilt,  definition  of,  281. 


Glue,  58,  212,  312. 
Goat  carcasses,  209-10. 

skins,  value  of,  212. 
Goats  and  kids — 

charges  for  selling  at   Chicago, 

O1  £T 

number  slaughtered  in  U.  S.,  214. 

on  the  market,  233. 

slaughter  at  markets,  locally,  and 

on  farms,  214. 
Governments,  329. 
Grade  animal,  definition  of,  128. 

dairy  cows  compared  with  scrub 

dams,  173-5. 

market,  definition  of,  107. 
Grading  carcasses,  beef,  53-4. 
hog,  308-10. 
mutton  and  lamb, 

207. 

see  Market  classes 
Grease,  487. 

Great  Horse,  origin  of,  375-6. 
Grunting,  490. 

Guenon,  Francois,  escutcheon  theory 
of,  149. 

Hams,  long-cut,  307-8. 

Hand,  definition  of,  372. 

Hay,  charges  for,  at  Chicago  market, 

83. 

Heaves,  483-4. 
Heavy-harness  type — 
description  of,  400-8. 
see  Carriage  horse. 
Heifer    beef,    compared    with    steer 

beef,  91-3. 
carcasses,  preferred  in  England, 

51. 

definition  of,  26. 
fat,  on  the  market,  109,  113. 
Height  of  horses,  determining,  372-3. 
Hides,    cattle,    average   weight   and 

value  of,  57. 
see  Skins. 

High  grade  animal,  definition  of,  128. 
Hind  leg  of  horse,  anatomy  of,  352-5. 
attachment  of,  361. 
Hinny,  468. 
Hip  down,  487. 
Hock,  anatomy  of,  352-4. 
Hocks,  bent  or  sickle,  369-70. 
Hog  by-products,  312,  317-8. 

carcass,   classes  and   grades   of, 

308-10. 

discussion  of,  297-310. 
U.S.  Retained,  311. 
wholesale  cuts  of,  301-3. 
crop,  peculiarities  of,  320-1. 
fattening  ability  of,  305. 
marketing,  numbers  and  prices 

by  seasons,  321. 

markets  and  pork  packing,   314- 
21. 


498 


INDEX 


Hog  markets,  continued. 

present    leading,     and     re- 
ceipts, 319. 
-packing  centers,  leading  present, 

316. 

firms  at  Chicago.,  317 
past  and  present,  314-21. 
prices  at  Chicago,  330. 
-producing  states,  334. 
product  importing  countries,  318- 

9. 

exports  of,  318-9. 
high  fuel  value  of,  336-7. 
-raising  countries,  leading,  333. 
see  Pigs,  Pork,  and  Swine, 
slaughter,  compared  with   cattle 
and  sheep,  297-8. 
at     markets,     locally, 
and  on  farms,  319. 
terms,  definition  of,  281. 
yardage  charges  at  Chicago,  322. 
Hogs  and  corn  closely  related,  334-5. 
boar  class  of,  328. 
breeding  for  the  market,  332-44. 
butcher,  322-3. 
charges  for  buying  at  Chicago, 

328. 

selling  at  Chicago,  322. 
cripples,  329. 
dead,  329-30. 

dressing  percentage  of,  299-300. 
English  bacon,  325-6. 
feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain,  339-40. 
feeder  pig  class,  328. 
governments,  329. 
heavy   and   light,   demand   and 

prices  for,  331. 
increase  in  numbers  of,  333. 
light,  325-7. 
light  light,  327. 

mixed,  326-7. 
market   classes   and    grades   of, 

322-31. 
number,  value,  and  distribution 

in  U.S.,  334. 
numbers  packed  in  various  years, 

and  cost,  316. 
offal  of,  299-300. 
packing  class  of,  323-4. 
pig  class  of,  327. 
prime  heavy,  322. 
public  inspection  of,  at  Chicago, 

charge  for,  322. 
roasting  pig  class,  329. 
rough  class,  327. 
seasonal  marketing  of,  331. 
see  Hog,  Pig,  Pork,  and  Swine, 
selection  for  breeding  purposes, 

339-44. 

sell  largely  by  weight,  331. 
size  in  market,  337-9. 
slaughter  in  U.  S.,  in  per  cent, 
total  stock,  337. 


Hogs,  continued. 

.slaughtering  and  dressing,  298-9. 
stag  class,  327-8. 
U.  S.  bacon,  326. 
weights  of,  in  early  times,  337-9. 
marketed  at  Chicago 
by  months,  320-1. 
Hoof,  and  how  it  grows,  357-9. 

mechanism,  365. 
Hoofs,  cattle,  value  of,  58. 
Horns,  cattle,  value  of,  58. 
Horse,  age  of,  from  teeth,  370-2. 
anatomy  of,  348-60. 
and  mule  compared,  469-71. 
base  of  support  of,  361-2. 
breeding,  457-67. 
conformation   concerned   in   ac- 
tion, 366-9. 

digestive  system  of,  350. 
effects  of  mechanical  inventions 

on,  381-2. 

foot  of,  anatomy  of,  355-9. 
fore  leg,  anatomy  of,  351-2. 
height  of,  determination  of,  372-3. 
hind  leg,  anatomy  of,  352-5. 
hock,  anatomy  of,  352-4. 
important  facts  concerning  the, 

361-73. 
in  America,  378-81. 

motion,  362-4. 

integumentary  system  of,  350. 
market  auction  rules,  438-9. 

requirements,  439-41. 
markets,  receipts  in  1918,  438. 
muscular  system  of,  349-50. 
nervous  system  of,  350. 
prices  at  Chicago,  455-6. 
respiratory  system  of,  350. 
skeleton  of,  348. 

compared  with 'man,  354-5. 
terms,  definition  of,  346-7. 
utility  of,  345. 
where  wear  comes  in,  364-5. 
Horses,    number,    value,    and    dis- 
tribution in  U.  S.,  466-7. 
Hot-house  lambs,  232. 
Hunter  horse,  description  of,  428-33. 
origin  of,  376. 
production  of,  433. 

Imports  of  wools,  272-3. 
Inspection,  federal,  for  disease,   79, 

311-2. 
Inspection  of  hogs  at  Chicago,  charge 

for,  322. 

Integumentary  system  of  horse,  350. 
Interfering,  369. 

Jack,  best  type  of,  468. 
Jacks,  breeds  of,  468. 
Jennet,  the,  468. 

Judging  dairy  cows,  two  methods  of, 
138-40. 


INDEX 


499 


Kemp,  201,  274. 
Knuckling,  484-5. 

Lamb,  definition  of,  193. 
recent  demand  for,  203. 
see  Mutton  and  Sheep. 
Lambs,  fat,  218-23. 
feeder,  227-9. 
hot-house,  232. 
spring,  219-20. 
throw-out,  233. 
Laminitis,  486-7. 
Lard,  grades  of,  310-1. 
hog  carcass,  301-6. 
hogs,  feeds  used  with,  283. 
-type  hog,  description  of,  282-9. 
reasons    for    developing    in 

U.  S.  336-7. 
yield    from    hogs    of    different 

weights,  304. 
Lateral  cartilages,  356-7. 
Lead  mules,  478. 
Lean  meat,  color  of,  in  beef,  52. 
percentage  in  beef  cuts,  48. 
Legs  of  horse,  anatomy  of,  351-5. 
attachment  to  body,  361-2. 
defects  in  conformation,  366-70. 
swollen,  492. 
Light-harness    type,    description    of, 

409-17. 
see  Roadster. 
Light  hog  class,  325-7. 

horses,  require  skill  in  breeding, 

461-3. 

light  hogs,  327. 
mixed  hogs,  326-7. 
Live-stock  farming,  advantages  of,  21. 
vs.  grain  farming,  19. 
comparison  of  crop  yields,  126. 
Locomotion  in  the  horse,  362-4. 
Loggers,  442-3. 
Loretta  D.,  record  of,  166. 

Manure,  value  of,  20. 

Marbling  in  beef,  50-2. 

Mare,  best  type  of,  for  horse  breeding, 

463-4. 

mule  breeding,  468. 
definition  of,  346. 
working  the  brood,  459. 
yeld,  definition  of,  347. 
Margin  in  cattle  feeding,  96-7. 
Market     cattle,     how     classed     and 

graded,  119-22. 
class,  definition  of,  106. 
classes  and  grades  of  cattle,  106- 

24. 

horses,    438-56. 
mules,  472-9. 
sheep,  215-34. 
swine,  322-31. 
wool,  262-7. 


Market  classes,  continued. 

average  prices  of — 
cattle,  122-4. 
horses,  455-6. 
sheep,  233-4. 
swine,  330. 

demands,  importance  of,  to  breed- 
er and  feeder,  21. 
grade,  definition  of,  107. 
receipts,  cattle,  71-2. 
horses,  438. 
sheep,  214. 
swine,  319. 

requirements  for  horses,  439-41. 
mules,  472-4. 

Marketing,    seasonal    variations    in, 
cattle,  72. 
hogs,  321,  331. 
sheep,  214. 
wool  properly,  276-7. 
zone  system  of,  at  Chicago,  72-3 
Markets,  American  cattle,  71-84. 
hog,  319-20. 
horse,  438. 
sheep,  214. 

development  of  large,  74-5. 
early  cattle,  73. 
hog,  past  and  present,  314-21. 
Mast,  332. 

Meat  consumption  in  various  coun- 
tries, 24,  297-8. 
industry,  three  eras  in,  80. 
packing,    development    at    Chi- 
cago, 315. 
production,  in  U.  S.,  in  1909,  24. 

world  total,  24. 
Merino,  classes  of,  251-3. 

importance  of  the,  in  U.  S.,  245. 
type,  description  of,  245-54. 
Milk  cistern,  157. 

cows,  see  Dairy  cows, 
ducts,  157-8. 
effect  of  feed  on,  170-1. 
mirror,  149-50. 

nature  and  composition  of ,  160-1. 
production,  breeding  for,  172-9. 
cause  of  variation  in,  167-70. 
in  U.  S.,  in  1918,  24-5. 
of  average  dairy  cow,  164. 
secretion,  155-63. 

stimuli  to,  163. 
veins,  148-9. 
wells,  149. 

yield  per  cow  in  1918,  24-5. 
Milkers  and  springers,  119. 
Milking    qualities,     importance     of, 

in  beef  cows,  135-6. 
Mining  mules,  475. 
Mohair,  278. 
Moonblindness,  488-9. 
Morgan  horse,  origin  of,  379. 
Motor,  effect  of,  on  horse  industry, 
382. 


500 


INDEX 


Mule,  468-71. 

and  horse  compared,  469-71. 
best  type  of,  469. 
Mules,  market  classes  of,  472-9. 

requirements  for,  472-4. 
number,  value,  and  distribution 

in  U.  S.,  466-7. 

Muscle,  effect  of  feed  on,  in  steers,  36. 
Muscular  system  of  horse,  349-50. 
Mutton  and  lamb  carcass,  203-13. 

consumption  in  various  coun- 
tries, 297-8. 
wholesale  cuts  of,  206. 
breeding  ewe,   type   desired  in, 

240-3. 
ram,  type    desired    in, 

237-40. 
carcass  and  pelt,  203-13. 

classes  and  grades  of,  207. 
qualifications    of    a    good, 

207-9. 

wholesale  prices  of,   207. 
pounds    produced   per   head    of 

stock  ewes,  237. 
recent  demands  for,  203. 
sheep,  breeds  of,  192. 
class,  218-26. 
increase  in  numbers  in  U.  S., 

236. 
type,  description  of,  194-202. 

Native  sheep,  characteristics  of,  216. 
Navicular  disease,  487-8. 
Nervous  system  of  horse,  350. 
Noils,  258. 
Norfolk  trotter,  origin  of,  378. 

Offal  of  cattle,  41. 

hogs,  299-300. 

sheep,  205. 

Oleo  oil,  source  of,  213. 
Oleomargarine,  manufacture  of,  57-8. 
Origin  of  breeds  of  horses,  374-83. 
types  of  horses,  374-83. 

Pace,  slow,  described,  422. 
Pacing  gait  described,  415-6. 

records,  411. 

Pack  and  riding  mules,  478-9. 
Packing  hogs,  323-4. 

-house  by-products  from  cattle. 

57-62. 

hogs,  312,  317-8. 
sheep,  212-3. 
industry,  development  of,  79-80. 

three  eras  in,  80. 
plant,  the  modern,  82-3. 
plants,  owners  of,  at  Chicago,  80. 
pork,  past  and  present,  314-21. 
Paddling,  369. 
Park  horses,  451. 

Pasterns,  slope  of,  effect  on  action, 
369. 


Pedigree,  dangers  of,  178. 

important    in    swine    breeding, 

343-4. 
value  of,  in  selecting  dairy  bull, 

176-8. 

with  performance,  176-8. 
Pelt  of  sheep,  value  and  use  of,  210-2. 
Periodic  opthalmia,  488-9. 
Pigs,  on  the  market,  327. 
feeding,  328. 
roasting,  329. 
see  Hog,  Pork,  and  Swine. 
Pluck,  205,  212. 
Plug  horses,  455. 
mules,  479. 
Pododerm,  357. 
Poll  evil,  489. 
Polo,  history  of,  433-4. 

pony,  description  of,  433-7. 
origin  of,  378. 
production  of,  436-7. 
Ponies,  455. 
Pony  breeding,  463. 
Population,  agricultural,  23-4. 

of  U.  S.,  23-4. 
Pork,    consumption    of,    in    various 

countries,  297-8. 
exports  of,  318-9. 
high  fuel  value  of,  336-7. 
importing  countries,  318-9. 
packing,    development    at    Chi- 
cago, 315. 

past  and  present,  314-21. 
produced  per  head  stock  of  hogs, 

337. 
products,  exports  of,  318-9. 

value  of,  300-1. 

salt,  fat,  and  lean  compared,  336. 
wholesale  cuts  of,  301-3. 

trade  in,  300-1. 

Pregnancy,  duration  of,  in  cows,  137. 
ewes,  240. 
mares,  464. 
sows,  344. 

Prices  at  Chicago,  for  cattle,  122-4. 
hogs,  330. 
horses,  455-6. 
sheep,  233-4. 
Prime  heavy  hogs,  322. 
Prolificacy  in  swine,  343. 
Purebred,  definition  of,  127. 

Rack  described,  422. 

Railroads,  early  shipments  of  cattle 

by,  75. 
Ram,  definition  of,  193. 

mutton   breeding,    type   desired 

in,  237-40. 

number  of  ewes  to  breed  to,  240. 
Rambouillet,  253-4. 
Range    cattle   breeding,    in    various 

states,   129-30. 
on  the  market,  110-2 


INDEX 


501 


Range  continued. 

horses,  454-£. 

sheep,  216. 
Receipts  at  leading  markets — 

cattle,  71-2. 

hogs,  319. 

horses,  438. 

sheep,  214. 

Records,  fastest  trotting  and  pacing, 
410-1 

highest,  by  dairy  cows,  166-7. 

value  of,  in  breeding  for  beef,  137. 
dairy  cattle,  175. 
Refrigeration,  artificial,  81. 
Refrigerator  car,  80-1. 
Renick,  George,  cattle  feeding  opera- 
tions of,  73-4. 

Respiratory  system  of  horse,  350. 
Ringbone,  489. 
Road  horse  class,  451-2. 

puff,  492. 
Roadster  type,  description  of,  409-17. 

origin  of,  379. 
Roaring,  489-90. 
Roasting  pigs,  329. 
Roughs,  327. 

Rudimentaries  of  bull,  154. 
Runabout  horses,  451-2. 
Running  horse,  origin  of,  375. 
walk  described,  422. 

Saddle  Horse,    American,    origin    of, 

379-80. 
class,  453-4. 
first,  origin  of,  374-5. 
type,    description    of, 

418-27. 

Sand  crack,  490. 
Sausage  casings,  212. 
Scouring  wool,  270-1. 
Scrub  animal,  definition  of,  127. 
Secretion  of  milk,  155-63. 
Sex  differences  in  beef  carcasses,  54. 
Shadybrook  Gerben,  record  of,  166. 
Shearing  sheep,  255. 

hand  vs.  machine,  276. 
Shearling,  definition  of,  193. 
Sheep     and    lambs,     marketing    by 

seasons,   214. 
number  slaughtered  in 

U.  S.,  214. 
at  Chicago,  number,  value,  and 

weight  of,  214. 
branding  with  paint,  275. 
breeding  for  the  market,  235-44. 
breeds,  192. 

wool  of,  classified,  267. 
by-products   from    slaughtering, 

212-3. 

carcass,  203-10. 
caul,  204-5. 

charges  for  selling  at   Chicago, 
215. 


Sheep,  continued. 
dead,  233. 
dressing,  method  of,  204-5. 

percentage  of,  205. 
increase  in  numbers  in  U.  S.,  236. 
industry  in  U.  S.,  in  early  times, 

235-6. 
market   classes    and    grades   of, 

215-34. 
markets,  214-5. 

in  U.  S.,  214. 

most  profitable  kind  to  grow,  193. 
native  and  western,  216-8. 
number,  value,  and  distribution 

in  U.  S.,  236. 
offal,  205. 

pelts,  value  of,  210-2. 
prices  at  Chicago,  233-4. 

highest  and  lowest  months, 

234. 
raising,  advantages  of,  189-91. 

present  status  of,  189. 
see  Lamb  and  Mutton, 
shearing,  255. 
skins,  value  of,  212. 
slaughter    at    markets,    locally, 
and  on  farms,  214. 
by  Chicago  packers,  214-5. 
in  per  cent,  stock  of  ewes, 

237. 

slaughtering,  203-4. 
terms,  definition  of,  193. 
types  of,  191-3. 
Shoddy,  259. 
Shoe  boil,  484. 
Shote,  definition  of,  281. 
Shrinkage  of  beef  cattle  in  transit,  81. 

wools,  267. 
Sickle  hocks,  369-70. 
Sidebone,  490-1. 
Skeleton  of  horse,  348. 

man  and  horse  compared,  354-5. 
Skins  of  goats,  value  of,  212. 
sheep,  value  of,  212. 
Slaughter    at    Chicago,    number    of 
calves,  80. 
cattle,  72,  80. 
hogs,  317. 
sheep,  214-5. 
Slaughter  in  per  cent,   of  breeding 

stock — • 

cattle  and  calves,  125. 
sheep  and  lambs,  237. 
market,  local,  and  farm — 
of  cattle  and  calves,  72. 
goats  and  kids,  214. 
hogs,  319. 

sheep  and  lambs,  214. 
of  hogs  in  per  cent,  of  total  stock, 

337. 

pork   compared   to  beef   and 
mutton,  297-8. 


502 


INDEX 


Slaughtering  and  dressing  cattle,  40-1. 
hogs,  298-9. 
sheep,  203-5. 

Sloan,  Tod,  his  method  of  riding,  363. 
Soil  fertility,  maintenance  of,  20. 
Southern  chunks,  444. 
Soundness  in  breeding  ewes,  231. 
Sow,  age  to  begin  breeding,  334. 
definition  of,  281. 
type  desired  in,  339-44. 
Spanish  horse,  origin  of,  375. 

Merino,  245. 
Spavins,  481-3. 

Spayed  heifer,  definition  of,  26. 
Spaying  heifers,  reasons  for,  93-4. 
Splint,  491. 
Spring  lambs,  219-20. 
Springers,  119. 
Sprung  knees,  491. 
Stag,  definition  of,  26,  193,  281,  347. 
Stags,  327-8. 

and  bulls  on  market,  113. 
Stallion,  definition  of,  346. 

type  desired  in,  465. 
Standardbred  horse,  origin  of,  379. 

see  Roadster. 
Stearin,  58,  312. 
Steer  class  on  market,  107-10. 

definition  of,  26. 

Steers,  changes  in  due  to  feeding,  36-8. 
gains  in  different  feeding  periods, 

52. 

see  Cattle  and  Feeder, 
weights  at  various  ages,  39. 
Stepping  pace  described,  422. 
Stock  and  feeding  cows,  117. 
Stocker  and  feeder  cattle — 

decline  in  production,  126. 

sale  by  seasons,  95. 

see  Feeder. 

sub-classes   and    grades    of, 

115-7. 

where  bought,  95. 
Stomach  worm  of  sheep,  217-8. 
Stringhalt,  491-2. 
Sugar  mules,  476. 
Suprarenalin,  213. 
Sweetbreads,  58. 

Swine,  advantages  of  raising,  279-80. 
breeds  of,  281. 
see  Hog,  Pig,  and  Pork, 
types  of,  280. 
Swollen  legs,  492. 

Teats  of  dairy  cow,  147. 

structure  of,  157. 

Teeth  as  indication  of  age  of  cattle,  39. 
horses,    370-.2. 
sheep,  202. 

Temperament,  dairy,  150. 
discussion  of,  150. 


Tests  of  dairy  cows  at  expositions; 

164-6. 

value  of,  175. 
Texas  and  western  range  cattle,  110-2. 

long-horn  cattle,  110-1. 
Thick  wind,  489-90. 
Thoroughbred,  origin  of,  375. 
Thoroughpin,  492. 
Thyroidin,  213. 

Three-gaited  saddle  horse,  423-4. 
Throw-out  lambs,  233. 
Thrush,  492. 
Top,  258-9. 
Tractor,  effect  of,  on  horse  industry, 

382. 
Transportation,    early    methods    of, 

73-4. 

Tripe,  212. 

Trot,  fox,  described,  422. 
Trotting  gait  described,  415. 
horse,  origin  of,  379. 
records,  410. 

Turk  horse,  origin  of,  375. 
Two-shear,  definition  of,  193. 
Two-tooth,  definition  of,  193. 
Type,  definition  of,  25. 

of  horse  to  breed,  choice  of,  460-1. 
value  of,  in  beef  making,  63-70. 
Types  of  cattle,  25. 
horses,  383. 

effects    of    mechanical    in- 
ventions   on,    381-2. 
origin  of,  374-83. 
sheep,  191-3. 
swine,  280. 

Udder  of  cow,  structure  of,  155-7. 

dairy  cow,  146-7. 
Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago — 
charges  for  buying  hogs,  328. 
corn,  322. 
hay,  83. 

inspection  of  hogs,  322. 
selling  cattle  and  calves,  83 . 
hogs,  322. 

sheep  and  goats,  215. 
yardage  of  cattle,  83. 
hogs,  322. 
sheep,  215. 
description  of,  76-8. 
founding  of,  76. 
growth  as  hog  market,  319-20. 
prices  for  cattle  and  calves,  122-4. 
hogs,  330. 
horses,  455-6. 
sheep,  233-4. 
receipts,  cattle,  71. 
hogs,  319-20. 
horses,  438. 
sheep,  214. 
sources  of,  79. 
see  Chicago. 


INDEX 


503 


Unsoundness  in  the  horse,  480-92. 
U.  S.  bacon  hogs,  326. 

Variations    in    usefulness    of    dairy 

cows,  164-71. 
Veal  calves,  118-9. 

consumption    in    various    coun- 
tries, 297-8. 
pounds   produced    per   head    of 

cows,  125. 
see  Calves. 

Walk,  running,  described,  422. 
Wagon  horses,  444-9. 
Walk,  trot,  canter  horse,  423-4. 
War  Horse,  origin  of,  375-6. 
Weanling,  definition  of,  346. 
Weeds,  455. 

Weight,  dressed,  average  of  calves,  42. 
cattle,  42. 
hogs,  300. 
lambs,  205. 
sheep,  205. 

for  age,  beef  bulls  and  cows,  131. 
draft  horses,  399. 
lard  hogs,  289. 
steers,  39. 
importance  of,  in  draft  horses, 

384-5. 

live,    average    of    slaughtered 
calves,  42. 
cattle,  42. 
hogs,  300. 
lambs,  205. 
sheep,  205. 

of  hogs,  most  profitable,  339. 
Weights  of  early  cattle,  85-7. 

hogs,  337-9.    • 
hogs  at  Chicago,  by  months, 

320-1. 
horses,  442. 
Western  range  cattle,  110-2. 

breeding  in  various  states,  129-30. 
receipts  at  Chicago,  71. 
Western  sheep,  characteristics  of,  216. 

prices  at  Chicago,  233-4. 
Wether,  definition  of,  193. 
Wethers,  fat,  225-6. 

feeder,  230. 
Wheel  mules,  478. 
Whistling,  490. 
Wholesale  cuts  of  beef,  42-4. 

mutton  and  lamb,  206. 
pork,  301-3. 
Wiltshire  side,  307-8. 
Windgall,  492. 
Wool,  Australian  plan  of  handling, 

277-8. 

black,  270,  276. 
buck  fleeces,  276. 
burs  in,  275. 
carbonization  of,  271. 
character,  274. 
clip  of  world,  271. 
consumption  per  capita,  255. 


Wool,  continued. 

cotted  or  matted,  276. 

dyeing,  259. 

factors    determining    value    of, 

273-6. 
fiber,  strength  of,  275. 

structure  of,  255-7. 
fineness  of,  257. 
frowzy,  268. 
grading,  262. 

imports  and  exports,  272-3. 
market  classes  and  grades,  262-7 
marketing  properly,  276-7. 
markets  in  America,  273. 
packing,  276. 
painted,  275. 
pooling  by  growers,  278. 
pounds  per  pound  of  cloth,  259. 
prices  of  scoured  and  raw,  274. 
-producing  states,  272. 
production  in  U.  S.,  271-2. 
pulling,  269-70. 
scouring,  270-1. 
see  Fleece  and  Wools, 
shearing,  hand  vs.  machine,  276. 
shrinkage,  272,  273-4. 

of  various  grades,  267. 
sorting,  268-9. 
tags,  275. 

tying  fleece,  275-6. 
wet,  275. 

Woolens  and  worsteds,  258-9. 
Wools,  American,  how  to  improve,  277. 
and  wool  growing,  255-78. 
bright  and  semi-bright,  260. 
carpet,  259-60. 
classifications  of,  259-67. 
clipped  and  pulled,  259. 
combing  and  clothing,  values  of, 

262. 
domestic  and  territory,  259-61. 

classes  and  grades  of,  262-7. 
Ohio,  260. 

see  Fleece  and  Wool, 
washed,     unmerchantable,     and 

unwashed,  261-2. 
World's  record  dairy  cows,  166-7. 
trotting     and     pacing     records, 

410-11. 

Worms,  stomach,  of  sheep,  217-8. 
Worsteds  and  woolens,  258-9. 

Yardage  charges  at  Chicago — 
cattle  and  calves,  83. 
hogs,  322. 

sheep  and  goats,  215. 
Yearling  sheep,  fat,  224-5. 

feeders,  229. 

Yeld  mare,  definition  of,  347. 
Yolk,  200. 

secretion  and  composition,  257-8. 

Zone  system  of  marketing  at  Chicago, 
72-3. 


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